Introduction

The discourses in the Pāli Nikāyas and their counterparts in the Chinese Āgamas portray the Buddha as a teacher with a remarkable ability to adjust himself to the thought-world of his audience, expressing his teachings in ways well suited to the capacity of his listeners.[n.1] For a survey of different aspects of the Buddha's teaching abilities cf. Guruge 2003. Perhaps one of the most dramatic testimonies among these presentations of the Buddha's capability as a teacher is the tale of the conversion of the killer Aṅgulimāla.

The contrast set by this conversion could not be more extreme: Aṅgulimāla rushes with weapons in his hands at the Buddha, but after a short exchange discards his weapons, requests to go forth as a Buddhist monk, and eventually becomes an arahant. This fascinating transformation from killer to arahant has become a popular subject in the Buddhist traditions, recorded in a range of texts and represented in Buddhist art.[n.2] Schlingloff 1988: 229 refers to a representation of the Aṅgulimāla tale in Gandharan art, which depicts how "Aṅgulimāla appears before the Buddha twice; once rushing towards him to attack and then bowed at his feet", a contrast that highlights the Buddha's ability to convert a ferocious brigand; for a detailed survey of representations in art cf. Zin 2006b: 111–123, and on brigandage in ancient Indian narrative in general cf. Bloomfield 1926. The main textual records of Aṅgulimāla's conversion, taken up in this study, are:

• the Aṅgulimāla-sutta in the Majjhima-nikāya,[n.3] [14] MN 86 at MN II 97,21 to 105,24; cf. also Th 866 to 919.
• a discourse in the Saṃyukta-āgama (T 99),[n.4] [3] SĀ 1077 at T II 280c18 to 281c2.
• a discourse in the partial Saṃyukta-āgama (T 100),[n.5] [13] SĀ2 16 at T II 378b17 to 379a22. This discourse has been translated by Bingenheimer 2006: 46–49. Apart from some minor differences, the account in SĀ2 16 is similar to that in SĀ 1077.
• a discourse in the Ekottarika-āgama,[n.6] [15] EĀ 38.6 at T II 719b20 to 722c22.
• an individual translation attributed to Dharmarakṣa,[n.7] [18] T 118 at T II 508b20 to 510b8.
• an individual translation attributed to Fǎjù (法炬),[n.8] [19] T 119 at T II 510b17 to 512a29, variant readings attribute T 119 also to Dharmarakṣa.
• Sanskrit fragments,[n.9] [20] The relevant fragments are: SHT I 160c, Waldschmidt 1965: 90–91, SHT VI 1561, Bechert and Wille 1989: 189 (identified by Hartmann 1998: 356 note 18), and two fragments from the Hoernle collection published in Hartmann 1998. A correlation of SĀ 1077 with its Sanskrit counterparts can be found in Enomoto 1994: 22.
• a tale in the Chinese Udāna collection,[n.10] [21] T 212 at T IV 703a25 to 704b24; on this collection cf. below p. 463ff.
• and a tale in the Scripture on the Wise and the Fool.[n.11] [22] T 202 at T IV 423b6 to 424b10, with its Tibetan counterpart in Schmidt 1843: 239–261; on the Scripture on the Wise and the Fool cf. the study by Mair 1993/1999. The conversion of Aṅgulimāla has also served as the basis for another discourse, 央掘魔羅經, T 120 (also extant in Tibetan). Nattier 2007: 185 note 16 comments that this discourse "should not be treated as a close relative of the Pāli sutta or the Chinese āgama texts in which Aṅgulimāla is the main figure, but rather as an independent scripture whose authors took earlier traditions concerning Aṅgulimāla as their point of departure." I have not consulted this text for the present study. A survey of the Aṅgulimāla tales that also takes into account T 120 can be found in Bareau 1985: 654– 658; for a study of the bodhisattva ethics proposed in T 120 cf. Schmithausen 2003: 22–34.

In what follows I translate the version of Aṅgulimāla's conversion found in the Saṃyukta-āgama (T 99).

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Translation

[The Discourse on the Robber][n.12] [6] The translated discourse is SĀ 1077 at T II 280c18 to 281c2; for the title I follow Anesaki 1908: 117 and Akanuma 1929/1990: 96, who suggest the title 賊 (a title found at T II 381a18 for the parallel discourse SĀ2 16).

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha, who was staying among the people of the Aṅga country, was walking in the Dhavajālikā forest.[n.13] [7] SĀ 1077 at T II 280c19: 陀婆闍梨迦林, identified as corresponding to Dhavajālikā by Bingenheimer 2006: 46 note 76. He saw that there were cowherds, shepherds, wood gatherers, grass gatherers, and other types of workers.

These saw the Blessed One walking on the road. Having seen him, they all said to the Buddha: "Blessed One, do not continue to walk on this path. Further ahead there is the robber Aṅgulimāla; avoid this fearsome man!"

The Buddha told the men: "I am not afraid", and having said this he continued walking along the path. They said the same three times, but the Blessed One [continued] walking all the same.

From afar, he saw Aṅgulimāla who, with sword and shield in his hands, was running towards him. The Blessed One performed such a supernormal feat that his body appeared as if he were walking calmly, yet Aṅgulimāla was unable to catch up, even though he was running. Having become utterly exhausted from running, [Aṅgulimāla] said to the Blessed One from afar: "Stand still, stand still, don't go!"

The Blessed One [continued] walking and replied: "I am always standing still, you are not standing still yourself!"

At that time Aṅgulimāla spoke these stanzas: "Recluse, though even now you are walking swiftly,
Yet you say: 'I am always standing still'.
And though I now stand still, tired and exhausted,
You say: 'You are not standing still'.
Recluse, what do you mean by saying:
'I am standing still and you are not standing still'?"

At that time the Blessed One answered with these stanzas: "Aṅgulimāla,
I say that I am always standing still,
In the sense that I have put down knife or stick
Towards any living being.[n.14] [8] SĀ 1077 at T II 281a5: 謂息於刀杖. My rendering of 息於 here and in the following stanzas is oriented on the reading nidhāya daṇḍam in the fragment parallel SHT I 160c R1, R2, and R3,Waldschmidt 1965: 91; cf. also Enomoto 1994: 22.
You are terrifying living beings,
Not ceasing from evil deeds.
I have stopped and put down knife or stick
Towards all creatures,
You constantly oppress and terrify
All creatures,
Never ceasing from
Performing ferocious deeds.
I have stopped and put down knife or stick
Towards all that are alive,
You for a long time have been painfully oppressing
All that are alive,
Performing black and evil deeds,
Without ceasing until now.
I am established in my own Dharma,[n.15] [9] Adopting the variant reading 自 instead of 息, in accordance with svake ca dha[rm]e in SHT I 160c R4, Waldschmidt 1965: 91.
Totally free from negligence.

You do not have the vision of the four truths,
Therefore you have not ceased being negligent."

Aṅgulimāla spoke these stanzas to the Buddha: "At long last I see a sage,
Whose tracks I earlier pursued.
Having heard your true and sublime words now,
I shall forsake my prolonged evils."

Having spoken like this, he promptly forsook sword and shield, prostrated himself at the Blessed One's feet [saying]: "May I be granted the going forth."

The Buddha with his mind of mettā and compassion, and with the pity of a great spirit for the manifold sorrows [of others], said: "Come, monk, go forth and receive the full ordination."[n.16] In the Chinese original this part is also in verse form.

At that time, after he had gone forth, Aṅgulimāla stayed alone in a quiet place and energetically practised contemplation. He here and now realized by himself that for the sake of which clansmen shave off hair and beard, don the ochre robes, and with proper faith leave behind the household, go forth to train in the path, and practise the holy life in a superior manner. He knew by himself here and now that: "Birth is extinguished for me, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there will be no more becoming hereafter."

Then Aṅgulimāla, who had become an arahant and was experiencing the joy and happiness of liberation, spoke these stanzas:
"Formerly I received the name Harmless,
Yet many I meanwhile harmed and killed.
Now I got a vision of the truth of my name,
As I have forever parted from harming and killing.

With bodily deeds I do not kill or harm,
The same is entirely the case for speech and mind.
You should know, [now] I truly do not kill,
I do not oppress living beings!
[Formerly] I washed my always bloodstained hands,
Being called Aṅgulimāla
I was floating and carried along by a current.[n.17] [10] SĀ 1077 at T II 281b4: 浚流之所漂; cf. T 2128 at T LIV 394a8, which explains 浚流 as standing for 水急流. The same sense is also found in the parallel stanzas in SĀ2 16 at T II 379a6 and in MN 86 at MN II 105,12.
[Now] I am controlled and calmed by the threefold refuge. Having taken refuge in the three gems,
I went forth and obtained full ordination.
I have acquired the threefold knowledge,
The Buddha's teaching has been done.
The tamers of oxen use punishing rods,
The trainers of elephants use iron hooks,
Without using knife or punishing rod,
Right deliverance tames devas and men.
"To sharpen a knife one employs water and a stone,
To straighten an arrow one heats it in the fire,
To dress timber one uses an adze,[n.18] [11] Adopting the variant 杖 instead of 材.
[But] those who tame themselves use skilful wisdom.
A man who earlier was engaged in heedlessness,
But afterwards becomes able to control himself,
Such a one illumines the world,
Like the moon appearing from behind a cloud.
A man who earlier was engaged in heedlessness,
But afterwards becomes able to control himself,
With right mindfulness goes beyond
The current of craving and affection in this world.

One who goes forth in his youth,
And diligently practises the Buddha's teaching,
Such a one illumines the world,
Like the moon appearing from behind a cloud.
One who goes forth in his early youth,
And diligently practises the Buddha's teaching,
With right mindfulness goes beyond
The current of craving and affection in this world.
One who transcends all evil deeds,
Who with right wholesomeness can cause them to cease,
Such a one illumines the world,
Like the moon appearing from behind a cloud.
A man who earlier performed evil deeds,
Who with right wholesomeness can make them cease,
With right mindfulness he goes beyond
The current of craving and affection in this world.
Previously I did such evil deeds,
Which certainly would have led me to an evil borne.
Having already experienced the fruit of evil,
Already [free of] former debts I eat my food.[n.19] [12] SĀ 1077 at T II 281b24: 宿責食已食. My rendering is conjectural, based on adopting the variant reading 債 instead of 責, and based on the assumption that the intended meaning is similar to MN 86 at MN II 105,16 and Th 882: anaṇo bhuñjāmi bhojanaṃ.
Those who feel resentment and dislike towards me,
[May they] hear this rightful Dharma,
Obtain the stainless eye of Dharma,
Practise patience towards me,
And not give rise to further quarrels and disputation.
Because of receiving the Buddha's kindness and strength,
[May those] resentful of me practise forbearance,
And always commend patience.

[May they] hear the right Dharma at the proper time
And, having heard it, practise accordingly."

When the Buddha had spoken this discourse, hearing what the Buddha had said Aṅgulimāla was delighted and received it respectfully.

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Study

Whereas the above-translated Saṃyukta-āgama version is relatively short, its parallels present additional narrative plots and background information.

The individual discourse translated by Dharmarakṣa explains why Aṅgulimāla had become a killer. The story goes that the wife of Aṅgulimāla's teacher had fallen in love with Aṅgulimāla and tried to seduce him. When he refused to comply with her wishes, she pretended to her husband that Aṅgulimāla had tried to rape her. The enraged teacher thereon devised the plan of commanding Aṅgulimāla to collect the fingers obtained by killing a hundred victims within a single day, hoping that as a result of carrying out this mission Aṅgulimāla would be reborn in hell.[n.20] [23] T 118 at T II 508c18.

A similar account can be found the Chinese Udāna collection and in the Scripture on the Wise and the Fool, which differ in so far as they report that Aṅgulimāla had to kill a thousand victims.[n.21] [24] T 212 at T IV 703b17: 人斬之, 數滿千人; T 202 at T IV 423c28: 斬千人 首, and its Tibetan counterpart in Schmidt 1843: 242,3: mi stong gi mgo bcad nas. The Pāli commentaries also narrate that it was at his teacher's bidding that Aṅgulimāla had to kill a thousand victims, although according to them Aṅgulimāla's defamation was the machination of jealous fellow students.[n.22] [25] Ps III 330,3 and Th-a III 55,36.

Obeying his teacher's command, Aṅgulimāla armed himself and set out on his mission, which he carried out with such efficacy that, according to the individual translation by Fǎjù, he had caused harm to villages and towns in the area.[n.23] [26] T 119 at T II 510c8: "towns and widespread villages have all been harmed by this man", 城廓村落皆為彼人所害. The Aṅgulimāla-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya reports that villages, towns, and whole districts had been laid waste by him.[n.24] [27] MN 86 at MN II 97,26: tena gāmā pi agāmā katā, nigamā pi anigamā katā, janapadā pi ajanapadā katā. The Pāli commentary indicates that, out of fear of Aṅgulimāla, people in these areas had deserted their homes and fled to Sāvatthī.[n.25] [28] Ps III 330,21.

Now if one were to engage with the narrative in realistic terms, the abandonment of a village in the direct vicinity of Aṅgulimāla's murderous activities seems conceivable, but it is hard to imagine that a single brigand could cause the depopulation of whole districts. In a predominantly agricultural society, such a mass exodus would imply loss of livelihood for a much of the population and be quite a dramatic decision. Now in the same two versions – the Pāli discourse and the translation by Fǎjù – when the Buddha had come close to where Aṅgulimāla lived, he encountered farmers and other travellers.[n.26] [29] MN 86 at MN II 98,27 lists cowherds, shepherds, ploughmen, and travellers, gopālakā pasupālakā kassakā pathāvino (following Be and Ce against padhāvino in Ee and Se). T 119 at T II 510c5 similarly lists collectors of firewood and grass, farmers, and travellers, 眾人擔薪負草及耕田人, 有行路人. Thus their narrative is not consistent, as it presents the area even close to Aṅgulimāla's haunts as not completely deserted.

Another dramatic element can be found in the discourse translated by Dharmarakṣa, in the Ekottarika-āgama discourse, and in the Chinese Udāna collection. According to these versions, at the time of the Buddha's approach Aṅgulimāla was just about to kill his own mother, who had come to bring Aṅgulimāla food.[n.27] [30] T 118 at T II 509a20, EĀ 38.6 at T II 719c14, and T 212 at T IV 703b22. T 202 at T IV 424a19 and its Tibetan counterpart in Schmidt 1843: 243,5, as well as the Maitrisimit, Tekin 1980: 162, also report that Aṅgulimāla was about to kill his mother and let go of her to kill the Buddha. The version of the tale Xuánzàng (玄 奘) heard during his travels in India similarly depicts Aṅgulimāla about to kill his mother; cf. T 2087 at T LI 899a24, translated in Beal 1884/2001: 3. The reason for wanting to kill his mother was that he lacked one victim to fulfil the task imposed by his teacher.

This dramatic element takes an almost humorous turn in the Ekottarika-āgama version. Here a great light that illuminates the whole forest prevents Aṅgulimāla from committing this abominable crime. On being informed by his mother that the source of this light could only be the Buddha, Aṅgulimāla lets go of her and tells her to wait for a moment, as he will just go to kill the Buddha, after which he will partake of the meal she has brought.[n.28] [31] EĀ 38.6 at T II 720a9: 母, 今且住, 我先取沙門瞿曇殺, 然後當食. T 212 at T IV 703c9 also records that Aṅgulimāla thought of coming back for his meal after killing the monk he had seen, whom in this version he had not recognized to be the Buddha.

A dramatic feature found in all versions is the magical feat performed by the Buddha to keep Aṅgulimāla at bay. The Pāli version and the translation by Fǎjù highlight the extraordinary nature of this feat by indicating that, even though Aṅgulimāla had formerly been able to catch up with an elephant, a horse, or a chariot, now he was unable to catch up with the Buddha.[n.29] [32] MN 86 at MN II 99,12 reports him reflecting: pubbe hatthim pi dhāvantaṃ anupatitvā gaṇhāmi, assam pi dhāvantaṃ anupatitvā gaṇhāmi, ratham pi dhāvantaṃ anupatitvā gaṇhāmi; a reflection similarly recorded in T 119 at T II 510c20: 我走能逮象, 亦能及馬, 亦能及車.

The Chinese Udāna account offers an explanation for this supernormal feat. According to its description, the Buddha magically contracted the earth where Aṅgulimāla was running and expanded the earth where he was standing himself, thereby remaining out of reach of his persecutor.[n.30] [33] T 212 at T IV 703c11: 佛以神力令彼無害在地頓縮, 佛地寬舒, 如是疲極 不能及佛. The Pāli commentary Ps III 332,10 also reports that the Buddha used magical power to influence the earth in such a way that Aṅgulimāla was unable to catch up with him.

These various dramatic elements and narrations lead up to the same type of verbal exchange, where according to all versions Aṅgulimāla tells the Buddha to stop, and in reply is told to stop himself. Puzzled by this statement, which stands in evident contrast to the actual situation where Aṅgulimāla stands still while the Buddha is still walking, Aṅgulimāla requests an explanation.

The Pāli discourse and the translation by Fǎjù present the Buddha's reply in a single stanza, which explains that the Buddha had stopped in the sense of having stopped violence towards living beings. [n.31] [34] MN 86 at MN II 99,29 (cf. also Th 867) and T 119 at T II 511a1. Dharmarakṣa's translation and the Ekottarika-āgama version have the same in two stanzas.[n.32] [35] T 118 at T II 509b9 and EĀ 38.6 at T II 720a24. The two Saṃyukta-āgama versions, which in all other respects present by far the briefest account, report the Buddha's reply in five or six stanzas, explaining in detail in what sense he had stopped and Aṅgulimāla had not yet stopped.[n.33] [36] SĀ 1077 at T II 281a4 and SĀ2 16 at T II 378c2. Although the Chinese Udāna account has only a single stanza, it specifies that this stanza should be supplemented with what is found in detail in the respective discourse, T 212 at T IV 703c20: 廣說如契經偈. This indicates that the Buddha's exposition of the topic of "stopping" would have been considerably longer than the single stanza it quotes. Particularly noteworthy is that this detailed reply additionally brings in the theme of the four (noble) truths.[n.34] [37] SĀ 1077 at T II 281a14: 汝不見四諦 and SĀ2 16 at T II 378c12: 汝不見四 諦 (adopting the variant 諦 instead of 部).

From the perspective of the discourse as a whole, this more detailed treatment seems quite to the point, since the words spoken by the Buddha at this moment convert Aṅgulimāla from a brigand ready to kill a monk into a repentant desiring to become a monk himself. Given such a radical conversion, it seems quite appropriate that, with the four noble truths, some aspect of the Buddha's teaching is brought in.

That the different accounts attribute the actual conversion to the words spoken by the Buddha at this point can be seen in Aṅgulimāla's reply. According to the Saṃyukta-āgama report, the freshly converted Aṅgulimāla proclaims that "having heard your true and sublime words, I shall forsake my prolonged evils."[n.35] [38] SĀ 1077 at T II 281a17: 今聞真妙說, 當捨久遠惡. Similar proclamations can be found in the other versions.[n.36] [39] MN 86 at MN II 100,3 (cf. also Th 868), SĀ2 16 at T II 378c18, T 119 at T II 511a5, and EĀ 38.6 at T II 720b18. The same is also implicit in T 118 at T II 509b15, although this version does not report any words spoken by Aṅgulimāla in reply.

In contrast, according to the different records of his stanzas Aṅgulimāla does not in any way refer to the Buddha's magical feat. Thus the magical feat appears to be a less important matter from the perspective of the actual conversion.

In fact, one might even imagine the whole scene without any magical feat,[n.37] [40] Stede 1957: 533 offers the entertaining assessment that "there can be little doubt that the account is true and that the miracle actually happened." since the Buddha's refusal to obey the brigand's order to stand still and his fearless rebuttal: "I have stopped, you stop too!" would be sufficient to account for the subsequent denouement of events.

This is of course mere speculation, given that all versions state that a miracle took place. In other words, for the miracle to be an addition it would need to have been introduced into the account of Aṅgulimāla's conversion at a time early enough to be present in all versions, leaving no direct evidence in support of the assumption that it was not part of the tale from the outset.

What seems certain, however, is that in all versions the words spoken by the Buddha are what really affects Aṅgulimāla. Even after the miracle, he just commands the Buddha to stop. In contrast, after the words spoken by the Buddha he throws away his weapons and asks to be accepted as a monk.

Moreover, after the magical feat Aṅgulimāla still addresses the Buddha as "recluse",[n.38] [41] SĀ 1077 at T II 280c29: 沙門, SĀ2 16 at T II 378b27: 沙門, MN 86 at MN II 99,17 and Th 866: samaṇa, T 118 at T II 509b2: 沙門, T 119 at T II 510c26: 沙門, EĀ 38.6 at T II 720a18: 沙門, and T 212 at T IV 703c15: 沙門. Wagle 1966: 56 explains that the use of the address samaṇa "denotes a certain indifference". a mode of address used in the early discourses by outsiders that have no particular relation to or confidence in the Buddha. After the words spoken by the Buddha, however, a change of attitude has taken place, as he refers to the Buddha as a "sage", as the "Blessed One", or as a "venerable one".[n.39] [42] SĀ 1077 at T II 281a16: "sage", 牟尼, SĀ2 16 at T II 378c15: "such a man", 如此人 and "Blessed One", 婆伽婆, MN 86 at MN II 100,1 and Th 868: mahesi, T 118 at T II 509b13: "great sage", 大聖, EĀ 38.6 at T II 720b16: "venerable one", 尊, and T 212 at T IV 704a6: "great sage", 大聖. An exception to this pattern is T 119 at T II 511a5, where he still uses the address "recluse", 沙 門. The forms of address used by Aṅgulimāla in the different versions at this point would not support the emendation of mahesi to maheso suggested by Gombrich 1996: 151, based on which he then suggests that Aṅgulimāla could have been a "proto-Śaiva/Śākta". A similar suggestion was already made by Eitel 1888/2004: 13, who in his gloss on "Angulimālīya" speaks of a "Śivaitic sect of fanatics who practiced assassination as a religious act. One of them was converted by Śākyamuni." Similarly Legge 1886/1998: 56 note 2 suggests that "the Aṅgulimālya were a sect of Śivaitic fanatics, who made assassination a religious act." Again, Soothill and Hodous 1937/2000: 454 under the entry 鴦崛摩羅 speak of a "Śivaitic sect that wore … chaplets" of fingerbones. Yet, according to Maithrimurthi and von Rospatt 1998: 170 and 173 "there seems to be no testimony at all in the history of Indian religions to the practice of killing for decorating oneself with parts of the victim's body" and such a proto-Śaiva/Śākta would antedate "other known practitioners of Śaivic tantrism by a millennium". These epithets express Aṅgulimāla's appreciation of the wisdom underlying the Buddha's explanation and probably also his respect for the Buddha's fearless response when commanded to stand still by an armed brigand.[n.40] [43] Harris 1994: 36 explains that, due to the words spoken by the Buddha, "Aṅgulimāla is forced into the realization that his life has been a futile chase, a fretful searching, without peace and fulfilment. The tranquillity of the Buddha contrasts sharply with his own turbulence and the destructive state of his mind. The contrast makes him see the nature of his mind. A revolution – in its true sense of a complete turning around – takes place."

That fearlessness can impress even a whole group of bandits is depicted in the Theragāthā, which reports an occasion when the novice Adhimutta had been caught by bandits ready to kill him. The brigands were surprised to find that, whereas other victims would tremble in fear and dread, young Adhimutta did not show any sign of fear at the prospect of being killed, in fact his countenance even brightened when confronted with such a dreadful prospect.[n.41] [44] Th 705f: yaññatthaṃ vā dhanatthaṃ vā, ye hanāma mayaṃ pure, avasesaṃ bhayaṃ hoti, vedhanti vilapanti ca. tassa te n' atthi bhītattaṃ, bhiyyo vaṇṇo pasīdati, kasmā na paridevasi, evarūpe mahabbhaye? Asked what made him fearless to such a degree, Adhimutta explained that one who has reached liberation is no longer afraid of death.

Unlike the case of the Buddha's reply to Aṅgulimāla, Adhimutta's explanation does not even mention the need to refrain from evil. Nevertheless, his words have the same converting effect as those spoken by the Buddha to Aṅgulimāla. According to the Theragāthā report, the robbers threw away their weapons and some even went forth and eventually attained realization.[n.42] [45] Th 724f. Since in this case no magical feat was performed, the main factor that brought about the conversion must have been Adhimutta's fearlessness.

The same appears to be the case for Aṅgulimāla's conversion. This conversion comes about when Aṅgulimāla encounters someone who not only disobeys the order to stand still, in spite of having no weapons to defend himself or counterattack, but even returns this order and tells the armed Aṅgulimāla to stand still himself. This apparently made quite an impression on Aṅgulimāla.

The impression made by this command to stand still himself, spoken without being supported by the threat of weapons, resonates in one of Aṅgulimāla's stanzas that contrasts the use of a punishing rod or iron hooks by those who train oxen and elephants to the Buddha's way of taming through showing the way to right deliverance, which dispenses with knife or rod.[n.43] [46] SĀ 1077 at T II 281b7, with its counterparts in SĀ2 16 at T II 379a9, MN 86 at MN II 105,7 (cf. also Th 878), EĀ 38.6 at T II 721b15, T 118 at T II 510a22, and T 119 at T II 512a20. Another instance of such taming without weapons is reported in the Divyāvadāna, Cowell and Neil 1886: 97,14, according to which the Buddha converted a thousand highwaymen, who went forth under him.

So the actual conversion appears to have as its harbinger Aṅgulimāla's astonishment at his inability to reach the Buddha, be this in a literal sense by being unable to catch up with the Buddha or in a figurative sense by being unable to measure up to the Buddha's level of utter fearlessness.

This is then followed by words that highlight the evil he had done, a rather direct mode of addressing a feared brigand, especially when used by a prospective victim. In the Saṃyukta-āgama version, the contrast between Aṅgulimāla's evil deeds and the Buddha's harmless conduct is rounded off by a reference to the deeper insight that stands behind this contrast. This deeper insight is a vision of the four noble truths. The four noble truths, representative of the Buddha's teaching in a nutshell, reveal that there is a path to fearlessness – a path which, according to all versions, Aṅgulimāla was quick to embark on himself.

Looking back on the different versions of Aṅgulimāla's conversion, the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse presents a rather brief and straightforward account. Without any further ado it begins with the Buddha approaching the whereabouts of Aṅgulimāla, about whom all we are told is that he is a robber and better avoided.

In the other versions he is introduced as a serial killer, engaged in a mission to kill a hundred or even a thousand victims. This killer possesses supernormal strength, has already laid waste whole districts, and is of such extraordinary speed as to be able to catch up even with an elephant, a horse, or a chariot. His strength and speed, however, are no match for the Buddha, who defeats Aṅgulimāla through a magical feat that renders the robber incapable of coming close to his slowly walking victim.

The fascination that the motif of Aṅgulimāla's conversion must have exerted on early Buddhists may well be responsible for the apparent tendency to dramatize or exaggerate, which manifests repeatedly in the different versions. The proliferation of wondrous elements is particularly pronounced in the Ekottarika-āgama version, where the Buddha emanates a great light that pervades the whole forest where Aṅgulimāla is staying.

Another facet of this dramatizing tendency is the depiction of Aṅgulimāla's utter recklessness, where he is ruthless to such an extent as to be willing to kill his own mother. That she has just come to bring him food further emphasizes her motherly role and thereby sharpens the contrast between his intended deed and his chosen victim. To kill one's own parent is according to early Buddhism one of the most heinous of crimes, an act that renders the perpetrator incapable of real spiritual progress during the remainder of his or her life and destines the killer to an evil rebirth.

The fascination exerted by Aṅgulimāla's conversion would also be responsible for the increasing degree to which other events related to him are covered in detail. The stanzas at the end of the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse suggest awareness of at least one other event recorded in the parallel versions. In these stanzas, Aṅgulimāla refers to "those who feel resentment and dislike" towards him, asks them to "practise patience" towards him, and expresses his hope that they will "not give rise to further quarrels and disputation".

These lines appear to refer to an incident that according to the other versions happened after he had gone forth, when people attacked him while he was begging for food in town.[n.44] [47] MN 86 at MN II 104,3, EĀ 38.6 at T II 721a22, T 118 at T II 510a6, T 119 at T II 511c23, and T 212 at T IV 704a26. A somewhat similar story can be found in the Jain Antagaḍadasāo, translated in Barnett 1907/1973: 91, where a Jain monk on his begging tour is attacked by relatives of his former victims. As a layman, he had been a garland-maker and had killed numerous people due to being possessed by a spirit. On one occasion, however, he was unable to get close to his prospective victim, who was a Jain disciple. Thereon the spirit left him and he went forth as a Jain monk, eventually reaching full liberation. The parallelism of several aspects of this tale to the story of Aṅgulimāla is remarkable. The karmic retribution experienced in this way might also underlie the statement that he had "already experienced the fruit of evil". The Saṃyukta-āgama discourse, although apparently reflecting awareness of this event, contents itself with giving pride of place to the actual conversion and relegates all other events to the background, merely referring to them in stanzas.

Due to the straightforward and brief nature of the Saṃyukta-āgama account, the actual conversion stands out with increased clarity. This is further amplified by the circumstance that the words that brought about this conversion are reported at considerable length. In the other versions, in contrast, the actual conversion gets somewhat out of focus, as the conversion is buried under increasingly wondrous and miraculous events and embedded in a wider narration that covers events that happened before and afterwards.

In a way, the variations found between the accounts of Aṅgulimāla's conversion could be seen to represent general tendencies at work in the development of Buddhist oral literature, where the introduction of wonders and miracles, as well as the successive amplification of narrative details, can at times obfuscate the main message of the text.

In the present case, the central message appears to be the contrast between the fear-inspiring brigand Aṅgulimāla, in full attack with weapons in hand, and the peaceful Buddha who fearlessly refuses to obey Aṅgulimāla's orders. The actual conversion of Aṅgulimāla then throws into relief the potential of the early Buddhist teachings to lead even a criminal to renunciation and eventually to a state of peacefulness and true fearlessness, a potential that in the case of Aṅgulimāla involves a change from killer to saint.