Introduction

The present chapter offers a translation of the Saṃyukta-āgama parallel to the Mahāgopālaka-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya, followed by a comparative study of the extant versions of the discourse and of its significance. The discourse presents a set of eleven exemplary qualities of a Buddhist monastic and illustrates these with the example of a cowherd. This set of qualities reflects the need to balance whole-hearted dedication to one's own inner development with concern for the welfare of others.

This aspect of the early Buddhist teachings, it seems to me, has not always received sufficient attention. Hence a comparative study of a discourse that reflects this theme may be of general interest, in addition to its potential of throwing light on the nature of early Buddhist literature as the final product of oral transmission over several centuries. The extant versions of the discourse in question are as follows:[n.1] [2] In addition to these, a similar treatment can also be found in the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, 大智度論, T 1509 at T XXV 74a2 to b17, translated in Lamotte 1944/1981: 149–152. Chung 2008: 205 lists Sanskrit fragment MS 2380 50b+51a of the Schøyen collection as yet another parallel. For a listing of eleven qualities of a cowherd cf. also T 201.61 at T IV 317b21 and Lévi 1908: 140–144.

• the "Greater Discourse on the Cowherd" (Mahāgopālaka-sutta) in the Majjhima-nikāya;[n.2] [3] MN 33 at MN I 220,1 to 224,29.
• the "Discourse on the Cowherd" (Gopāla-sutta) among the Elevens of the Aṅguttara-nikāya;[n.3] [4] AN 11.18 at AN V 347,14 to 353,15, the title Gopāla-sutta is found in Be and Ce, and mentioned in the uddānas in Ee and Se.
• the "[Discourse on the Cowherd]" in the Saṃyukta-āgama (T 99);[n.4] [5] SĀ 1249 at T II 342c11 to 343b6; I adopt the title suggested by Akanuma 1929/1990: 111.
• the first discourse in the "Chapter on the Cowherd" (放牛品) in the Ekottarika-āgama (T 125);[n.5] [6] EĀ 49.1 at T II 794a7 to 795a16.
• the "Discourse (Spoken by the Buddha) on the Cowherd" (佛 說放牛經), an individual translation attributed to Kumārajīva.[n.6] [7] T 123 at T II 546a16 to 547b4; on Kumārajīva cf., e.g., Nanjio 1883/1989: 406f, Bagchi 1927: 178–200, Ch'en 1964: 81–83 and 367f, Shih 1968: 60–81, Tsukamoto 1979/1985: 254, 304f, 375, 450f, 851–854, 869–878, Weeraratne 1999, and McRae 2004. The qualification 佛說, "spoken by the Buddha", makes its appearance regularly in the titles of works in the Chinese canon, where in most cases it probably does not render an expression found in the original, but serves as a formula of authentication of the translated scripture.

Thus, besides the two Pāli versions, three versions preserved in Chinese translation are at our disposition. In what follows I translate the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse.

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Translation

[Discourse on the Cowherd][n.7] [13] The translated discourse is SĀ 1249 at T II 342c11 to 343b6. For ease of comparison, I adopt the paragraph numbering used in the English translation of the Mahāgopālaka-sutta in Ñāṇamoli 1995/2005: 313–318.

1. Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was staying at Sāvatthī in Jeta's Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika's Park. At that time the Blessed One told the monks:

2. "If a cowherd is endowed with eleven qualities, he will not be able to rear cows or to look after and protect a great herd of cows [in a way that] brings about their well-being. What are these eleven [qualities]? They are:

• he does not know material form,
• he does not know characteristics,
• he does not remove pests,
• he is not able to dress their wounds,
• he is not able to smoke out [the cow-pens],
• he does not know [how] to choose the way,
• he does not know [how] to choose the place,
• he does not know the ford,
• he does not know the pasture,
• he milks dry,
• he does not skilfully take care of the leaders of the herd.

"These are reckoned the eleven qualities endowed with which he is not able to manage and protect a great herd of cows.

3. "Similarly, a monk who is endowed with eleven qualities will not be able to bring peace to himself or to others. What are these eleven [qualities]? They are reckoned to be:

• he does not know material form,
• he does not know characteristics,
• he is not able to remove harmful pests,[n.8] [14] SĀ 1249 at T II 342c20: 不能除其害蟲, whereas the earlier listing in relation to the cowherd at T II 342c15 speaks just of 不去蟲.
• he does not dress wounds,
• he is not able to smoke out,
• he does not know the right way,
• he does not know the place of tranquillity,[n.9] [15] SĀ 1249 at T II 342c21: 不知正路, 不知止處, whereas the earlier listing in relation to the cowherd at T II 342c16 reads: 不知擇路, 不知擇處. The present and the above-noted variation (note 8) reflect a penchant among Chinese translators to introduce some variation in their rendering of what in the Indic original were probably identical expressions. Zürcher 1991: 288 speaks of "a strong tendency to avoid the monotonous effect of … verbatim repetition … by introducing a certain amount of diversification and irregularity", as a result of which "in the same translated scripture we often find various alternative forms and longer or shorter versions of the same cliché."
• he does not know the ford,
• he does not know the pasture,
• he milks dry,
• he does not praise the virtues of elders of much learning and seniority, who have been practising the holy life for a long time and who are praised by the great teacher, [praising them] in front of his knowledgeable and wise [companions] in the holy life, so that they all have reverence [towards these elders], offering them service and requisites.

4. "What is reckoned as 'not knowing material form'? Whatever material form there is, it is all included in the four elements and in what is derived from the four elements. [Not knowing] this is reckoned as 'not knowing material form' as it really is.

5. "What is [reckoned] as 'not knowing characteristics'? [Some] affairs and deeds have the characteristic of being faults, [other] affairs and deeds have the characteristic of being wise. Not knowing this as it really is, this is reckoned as 'not knowing characteristics'.

6. "What is reckoned as 'not knowing [how] to remove pests'? When a thought of sensuality manifests, he tolerates it and does not get out of it, does not realize [its danger], does not extinguish it. When a thought of anger … of harmfulness manifests, he tolerates it and does not get out of it, does not realize [its danger], does not extinguish it. This is reckoned as 'not [knowing how] to remove pests'.

7. "What is [reckoned] as 'not dressing wounds'? That is, on seeing a form with the eye, he follows after and grasps its appearance and characteristics, he does not guard the eye-faculty [against] desire and dejection in regard to the world, [as well as against] evil and unwholesome qualities, [so that] consequently influxes arise in the mind. He is not able to protect [the eye-faculty]. As regards the ear … the nose … the tongue … the body … the mind … it is also again like this. This is reckoned as 'not dressing wounds'.

8. "What is [reckoned] as 'not smoking out'? He is not able to explain and clarify to others the teachings as he has heard and as he has received them. This is reckoned as 'not smoking out'.

11. "What is [reckoned] as 'not knowing the path'?[n.10] My translation follows an emendation suggested by Yìnshùn 1983c: 722 note 9 by leaving out the qualification "right", 正. This conforms with the rest of this paragraph, which only speaks of the "path", without qualifying this to be "right" (the earlier listing of eleven qualities, however, speaks of the "right way", 正路). The eightfold right path,[n.11] [19] SĀ 1249 at T II 343a7: 八正道, which thus does not employ the qualification "noble". The same is also absent from a reference to the "four truths" in T 123 at T II 547a13: 四諦; cf. below note 19. For a study of other occurrences of this type cf. Anālayo 2006a. as well as the noble Dharma and discipline, are reckoned to be the path. Not knowing them as they really are, he is reckoned 'not to know the path'.

10. "What is [reckoned] as 'not knowing the place of tranquillity'? That is, he does not gain joy and delight in regard to the teachings, realized by the Tathāgata, as being excellent, emancipating, and beneficial. This is [reckoned] as 'not knowing the place of tranquillity'.

9. "What is [reckoned] as 'not knowing the ford'? That is, he does not know the discourses, the discipline, the Abhidharma. He does not, from time to time, approach to ask for advice [regarding]: 'What is wholesome? What is unwholesome? What are offences? What are not offences? Doing what things is excellent and not evil?' He is not able to explain succinct teachings [himself], he is not able to ask [others] detailed questions in regard to what has been expounded. In regard to profound statements known to him, he is not able to clarify and explain them in detail [to others]. This is reckoned as 'not knowing the ford'.

12. "What is [reckoned] as 'not knowing the pasture?' That is, the four satipaṭṭhānas as well as the noble Dharma and discipline are reckoned to be the pasture. Not knowing these as they really are, this is reckoned as 'not knowing the pasture'.

13. "What is [reckoned] as milking dry'? Warriors, brahmins, and eminent householders freely give robes and blankets, food and drink, beds, medicines, and requisites to the Saṅgha. [If] that monk knows no limit in accepting them, [then] this is reckoned as 'milking dry'.

14. "What is [reckoned] as 'not praising the virtues of elders of great virtue, much learning, and seniority, etc., in front of his excellent and wise [companions] in the holy life, so that they respect and support [these elders], offering their service so that these obtain happiness'? That is, a monk does not praise those elders … up to … so that his excellent and wise [companions] in the holy life respectfully approach them in order to support them and do service by way of bodily, verbal, and mental acts. This is reckoned as 'not [praising] elders of much learning and seniority … up to … so that his excellent and wise [companions] in the holy life respectfully approach them to support them and do service, so that they obtain happiness'.

15. "A cowherd endowed with eleven qualities will certainly be able to rear a herd of cows or to look after and protect a herd of cows, bringing about their happiness. What are the eleven? They are said to be: he knows material form, he knows characteristics … as clearly explained above, up to … he is able to take care of the leaders of the herd from time to time, so that they obtain well-being. This is reckoned a cowherd endowed with eleven things who is able to rear, look after, and protect a herd of cows, bringing about their peace and happiness.

16. "Similarly, a monk endowed with eleven qualities will be able to bring peace and happiness to himself, and bring peace [and happiness] to others. What are the eleven? That is, he knows material form, he knows characteristics … up to the eleventh, as clearly explained above in full. This is reckoned a monk endowed with eleven things who is able to bring peace to himself and peace to others." When the Buddha had spoken this discourse, hearing what the Buddha had said the monks were delighted and received it respectfully.

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Study

The slightly irregular numbering of the paragraphs and of the eleven qualities in the above translation reflects the circumstance that the Saṃyukta-āgama version's listing shows a sequential variation when compared with the two Pāli discourses, whose sixth and eighth qualities occur in the opposite places (paragraphs 11 and 9 above). Such sequential variations are a relatively common occurrence in material that has been transmitted by oral means. The prolonged period of oral transmission has inevitably left an impact on the present shape of the early discourses, however much the reciters may have attempted to preserve accurately what they had received from their predecessors as the word of the Buddha.[n.12] [1] That oral transmission involves some degree of uncertainty is reflected in MN 76 at MN I 520,6, according to which what has been transmitted orally may be well remembered or not well remembered, it could be correct, but it could also be wrong, sussutam (Se: susutam) pi hoti dussutam pi hoti, tathā pi hoti aññathā pi hoti. In Anālayo 2007d, 2008h, 2009g, 2014b, and 2015a I have studied aspects of the oral transmission in early Buddhism, based on the substantial contributions made by other scholars to this theme, e.g., by von Simson 1965, Coward 1986, Gombrich 1990a, Collins 1992, von Hinüber 1994b, Allon 1997a and 1997b, and Wynne 2004. Differences found between Pāli discourses and their counterparts transmitted by other reciter traditions often manifest in such minor variations, whereas the main import of the doctrinal teachings tends to be similar.

Table 5 below presents the listing of the eleven qualities in the three Chinese versions, with numbering that reflects the sequence in which these qualities appear in the Pāli versions.

As the survey below shows, the basic pattern and the main themes in the parallel versions are similar for the first five qualities, and again for the final three. With the sixth quality, there is a variation, which manifests not only in a sequential difference, but also in the description of this quality.

In the two Pāli versions, the sixth quality is to question senior monks who are bearers of the Dharma, the discipline (vinaya) and the summaries (mātikā).[n.13] [22] MN 33 at MN I 223,31: "from time to time, having approached those monks who are learned, who are versed in the tradition (āgama), who are bearers of the Dharma, bearers of the discipline, and bearers of the summaries, he interrogates and asks questions of them", ye te bhikkhū (Se adds: therā) bahussutā āgatāgamā dhammadharā vinayadharā mātikādharā te kālena kālaṃ upasaṅkamitvā paripucchati paripañhati, with a similarly worded counterpart in AN 11.18 at AN V 352,9. The variation in the Siamese edition, which additionally mentions therā, neatly illustrates the type of error that can happen during transmission. This additional reference, which is not found in the same edition's description of the negative case where someone does not approach learned monks, is quite probably influenced by the fact that the eleventh quality speaks of ye te bhikkhū therā rattaññū. During oral transmission or in the course of the later copying of the text, this reference has quite probably been the source for the addition of therā to ye te bhikkhū bahussutā. In the above-translated Saṃyukta-āgama version, the monk himself is required to be learned, and that in relation to the discourses, the discipline, and the Abhidharma.[n.14] [23] SĀ 1249 at T II 343a11: 修多羅, 毘尼, 阿毘曇.

Table 5: Eleven Qualities in SĀ 1249 and Its Parallels

Saṃyukta-āgama (SĀ 1249):	Ekottarika-āgama (EĀ 49.1):	Individual Translation (T 123):
1 know four elements	1 know four elements	1 know four elements
2 know fool and wise	2 know fool and wise	2 know fool and wise
3 remove unwholesome	3 remove unwholesome	3 remove unwholesome
4 restrain senses	4 restrain senses	4 restrain senses
5 teach the Dharma	5 teach the Dharma	5 teach the Dharma
8 know eightfold path	8 know eightfold path	8 practise eightfold path
7 inspired by Dharma	7 inspired by Dharma	7 inspired by Dharma
6 question others	(?) know aṅgas	(?) know 4 noble truths
9 know satipaṭṭhāna	9 know satipaṭṭhāna	9 know satipaṭṭhāna
10 know moderation	10 know moderation	10 know moderation
11 respectful to elders	11 respectful to elders	11 respectful to elders

Placing these two descriptions side by side, the reference to mātikā in the Pāli versions can be seen to form the counterpart to the Abhidharma mentioned in their Saṃyukta-āgama parallel. This correspondence brings to mind a suggestion voiced by a number of scholars on the significance of the mātikās/mātṛkās for the development of the early Abhidharma texts, [n.15] [24] Cf., e.g., Kern 1896: 3, Winternitz 1920/1968: 9 note 1, Przyluski 1926: 334, Horner 1941: 292, Hofinger 1946: 230, Bareau 1951: 8–13, Migot 1952: 524–530, Warder 1961, Ling 1970: 19, Frauwallner 1971: 116–117, Misra 1972: 145, Anacker 1975: 59, Jaini 1977: 45, Watanabe 1983/1996: 42–45, Bronkhorst 1985, Gómez 1987/2005: 1270, Gombrich 1990a: 25, Gethin 1992/1993: 158–162, Hirakawa 1993/1998: 140–142, Cox 1995: 8, Buswell and Jaini 1996: 84–89, Norman 1997: 51, Dessein in Willemen et al. 1998: 12, Wayman 2000: 607, Dhammajoti 2002/2007: 1, Wickramagamage 2002, Ronkin 2005: 27–30, Shravak 2008: 211, Ming Wei 2010: 202–204, Dessein 2012: 142–145, and Skilling 2013: 155 note 214. in that such summaries of key terms would have played a key role in the genesis of abhidharmic listings. As I believe to have shown elsewhere, however, the evolution of abhidharmic thought is not merely the result of the proliferation of such lists.[n.16] Anālayo 2014c.

The Ekottarika-āgama version differs further in respect to this quality, as it does not mention any elders that are to be questioned, but requires the monk to be knowledgeable in the twelve aṅgas.[n.17] [25] EĀ 49.1 at T II 794c29 lists 契經, 祇夜, 授決, 偈, 因緣, 本末, 方等, 譬 喻, 生經, 說, 廣普, 未曾有法, corresponding to sūtra, geya, vyākaraṇa, gāthā, nidāna, itivṛttaka, vaipulya, avadāna, jātaka, upadeśa, udāna, and adbhutadharma. My correlation is based on the indications given in Nattier 2004: 194.

The Ekottarika-āgama presentation thereby brings in the northern tradition's counterpart to the nine aṅgas enumerated in the Pāli discourses.[n.18] [26] Found, e.g., in MN 22 at MN I 133,24, where the parallel versions MĀ 200 at T I 764a14 and EĀ 50.8 at T II 813a16 have listings of twelve aṅgas. Lamotte 1956: 263 note 2 explains that the twelvefold presentation prevails in the Chinese Āgamas, in the Chinese Vinayas (except for the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya), in the main treatises of the Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, Vaibhāṣika, and Yogācāra schools, and in most Mahāyāna sūtras. On the aṅgas in Pāli texts cf., e.g., Jayawickrama 1959, Kalupahana 1965, von Hinüber 1994a, and Anālayo 2016a.

Whereas the versions surveyed so far still agree that the canonical texts should be known – whether these are referred to by way of the threefold division or by way of the aṅgas – the individual translation does not mention any texts. Its corresponding quality rather stipulates knowledge of the four [noble] truths.[n.19] [27] T 123 at T II 547a12: "How does a monk know the ford? [Here] a monk knows the four truths", 云何比丘知渡水處? 比丘知四諦.

The remainder of the listings in the different versions can be seen to agree again fairly well, showing a basic similarity in the overall exposition of the eleven qualities required for a monastic to become a good 'cowherd'.

The image of the cowherd,[n.20] [28] The image of the cowherd is of course a familiar one in Indian thought; on its relation to the Kṛṣṇa legend cf., e.g., Vaudeville 1975. who gains his livelihood by properly looking after cows, may well have been chosen on purpose to illustrate a recurrent theme in this listing of qualities: the need to balance one's own benefit with looking after others. The significance of this theme can best be illustrated by briefly surveying the entire list.

The listing of qualities in the parallel versions begins with two basic aspects of insight, namely understanding the nature of material reality as made up of the four elements (quality 1), and knowing the difference between foolishness and wisdom (quality 2). Next come qualities related to conduct, where the removal of unwholesome states (quality 3) spells out the groundwork for mental culture which, together with the practice of sense-restraint (quality 4), sets the foundations for mental cultivation. These four qualities, which in a way establish the basics of personal growth, then find their counterbalance in the mention made of the need to also teach the Dharma to others (quality 5), thereby ensuring that benefitting others will become an integral part of a monk's practice.

The next qualities, listed with the above-discussed variations in the parallel versions, are related to being knowledgeable in the Dharma (quality 6) and being inspired by it (quality 7). Other forms of knowledge reflect again essential requirements for progressing in personal practice, where the noble eightfold path (quality 8) and the practice of the four satipaṭṭhānas (quality 9) need to be well understood.

These two qualities are followed by moderation in regard to the support received from others (quality 10) and respectful behaviour towards senior co-practitioners (quality 11), again bringing in the theme of concern for others.

The listing thus interrelates qualities aimed at a monk's own inner growth with qualities that reflect a concern for others. The higher number of qualities dedicated to a monk's development clearly gives priority to self-cultivation.[n.21] [29] The same is reflected in a simile in MN 8 at MN I 45,3 and its parallel MĀ 91 at T I 574b3, according to which someone who is drowning or sinking in the mud will be unable to pull out another who is in the same predicament. Similarly, if one has not yet fully disciplined oneself, one will not be able to discipline others. As Ñāṇaponika 1964/1988: 29 points out, this image sounds a warning against premature attempts to set oneself up as a guide for others. Nevertheless, the overall listing shows a balanced interplay between concern for oneself and regard for others.

The importance of concern for others receives an additional emphasis in the two Pāli versions in the Majjhima-nikāya and the Aṅguttara-nikāya. These two versions point out that lacking any of these eleven qualities a monk will be unable to come to growth in the Buddha's Dharma and discipline.[n.22] [30] MN 33 at MN I 220,15: abhabbo imasmiṃ dhammavinaye vuddhiṃ (Se: vuḍḍhiṃ) virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjituṃ, cf. also AN 11.18 at AN V 347,26.

This form of presentation spells out more explicitly than the Saṃyukta-āgama version, which speaks of being unable to bring peace to oneself or others, that neglecting activities such as teaching the Dharma to others will obstruct a monk's own growth in the Dharma.[n.23] [31] As Freiberger 2000: 41 comments, this presentation implies that neglecting to teach others hinders one's own progress, "wer es versäumt, andere zu unterweisen … wird dadurch in seinem Fortschritt gehindert." For a case study of the contribution that teaching others can offer to one's own progress towards awakening cf. below p. 273ff.

Another difference between the Pāli discourses and their Chinese parallels is the way they formulate the last quality in the list (11). Whereas the Chinese versions mainly mention the need for respectful behaviour in regard to one's elders,[n.24] [32] SĀ 1249 at T II 343a21, EĀ 49.1 at T II 794b21, and T 123 at T II 546c3; cf. also T 1509 at T XXV 74b13. the Pāli versions commend the developing of mettā by way of body, speech, and mind towards them. [n.25] [33] MN 33 at MN I 222,9 and AN 11.18 at AN V 350,13. Unlike the present case, in some other instances Chinese parallel versions give more emphasis to the divine abodes than their Pāli counterparts; cf. Minh Chau 1964/1991: 30f. This goes a step further than just being respectful and thereby further enhances the emphasis in the two Pāli discourses on empathy for others.

Needless to say, such acting with respect or even developing mettā towards others will in turn have its wholesome effects on a monk's own inner development. These two dimensions of practice – concern for others and personal development – are interrelated phenomena, comparable to the two sides of a coin. Similarly, the other qualities mentioned – such as, for example, the removal of unwholesome states (quality 3) – will inevitably have positive repercussions experienced by whoever may come into contact with such an internally purified person.

The fact that concern for others, in addition to being a natural effect of developing oneself, is given such an explicit highlighting in the Mahāgopālaka-sutta and its parallels is not an exceptional case among Pāli discourses. A passage in the Aṅguttara-nikāya, for example, reflects a similar attitude. This passage contrasts those who practise only for their own welfare to those who practise for their own welfare and the welfare of others. According to this discourse, those who only practise for their own welfare are "blameworthy" on that account, whereas those who practise for their own and others' welfare are "praiseworthy" by comparison.[n.26] [34] AN 7.64 at AN IV 116,22+23: gārayho and pāsaṃso. It is noteworthy that the Chinese parallels to this discourse treat the case of one who acts only for his or her own benefit with softer criticism. MĀ 1 at T I 422a6 and T 27 at T I 810b22 merely indicate that those who also benefit others are superior and more excellent than those who only benefit themselves; a third parallel, EĀ 39.1 at T II 728b26 to 729b10, does not take up this case at all. A study of the Chinese parallels to this discourse can be found in Schmithausen 2004.

The different versions of the "Discourse on the Cowherd" make it clear that consciously developing concern for others – represented by willingness to teach others (5), by moderation in regard to one's supporters (10), and by respectful behaviour or even mettā towards elders (11) – was in early Buddhist thought considered an integral part of a monk's own growth in the Dharma.[n.27] Here it might also be of relevance that in his study of monastic administration in Indian Buddhism, Silk 2008: 211 comes to the conclusion that his findings "compel us to acknowledge the important place of service within the monastic bureaucracy, and the vital and apparently often emically well-appreciated contribution of monks who chose administrative duties."

The same discourses, however, present these qualities together with other qualities aimed not directly at the welfare of others, but at a monk's own meditative development. This puts caring for others into perspective, suggesting that it should not be given such importance as to overshadow the other qualities mentioned.

In this way, the different versions of the present discourse highlight the importance of concern for the welfare of others, but at the same time place such concern in perspective by subordinating it to the principal task of progress towards liberation.

The theme of practising mettā as an aspect of the path that leads to awakening recurs in a stanza in the Dhammapada, found with minor variations in parallel stanzas transmitted by other traditions. The Pāli version of this stanza runs:

A monk who dwells in mettā,
Delighting in the teaching of the Buddha,
Will realize the path of peace,
The happiness of the stilling of formations.[n.28] [35] Dhp 368: mettāvihārī yo bhikkhu, pasanno buddhasāsane, adhigacche padaṃ santaṃ, saṅkhārūpasamaṃ sukhaṃ. A counterpart in the Gāndhārī Dharmapada stanza 70, Brough 1962/2001: 128, reads metra-vihara yo bhikhu, prasanu budha-śaśaṇe, paḍiviju pada śada, sagharavośamu suha. A version of this stanza in the Patna Dharmapada stanza 59, Cone 1989: 119, reads mettāvihārī bhikkhū, prasanno buddhaśāsane, paṭivijjhi padaṃ śāntaṃ, saṃkhāropaśamaṃ sukhaṃ (Roth 1980: 102 reads mettrā-vihārī and saṃkhāropasamaṃ). In Uv 32.21, Bernhard 1965a: 437, the corresponding stanza reads maitrāvihārī yo bhikṣuḥ, prasanno buddhaśāsane, adhigacchet padaṃ śāntaṃ, saṃskāropaśamaṃ sukham; with its Tibetan counterpart in stanza 32.22, Beckh 1911: 134, reading dge slong gang zhig byams gnas shing, sangs rgyas bstan la rab dad des (Zongtse 1990: 386 reads de), ʼdu byed nyer zhi zhi pa yi, zhi baʼi go ʼphang thob par ʼgyur (where the third and fourth sections of the stanza thus come in the opposite order); with Chinese counterparts in T 210 at T IV 572a11 and T 212 at T IV 764c27: 比丘為慈, 愛敬佛教, 深入止觀, 滅 行乃安, cf. also the similarly formulated T 213 at T IV 796b18: 苾芻為慈愍, 愛敬於佛教, 深入妙止觀, 滅穢行乃安 (where in each case the third part of the stanza speaks instead of "deeply entering into tranquillity and insight"). Yet another version of this stanza can be found in the Mahāvastu, Senart 1897: 421,18, reading: maitrāvihārī yo bhikṣuḥ, prasanno buddhaśāsane, adhigacchati padaṃ śāntaṃ, asecanaṃ ca mocanaṃ (which thus shows a variation in regard to the fourth section by referring to the "delightful release"; cf. also Uv 32.20 in Bernhard 1965a: 437, which agrees with Uv 32.21 in respect to the first three parts, but in the fourth part reads asecanakadarśanam). The formulation of Dhp 368 and its Indic parallels would not imply, pace Wiltshire 1990: 269, Maithrimurthi 1999: 69, and Gombrich 2009: 87, that mettā on its own leads to the final goal. The stanza only implies the supportive function that mettā can offer for progress towards liberation, where the constraints of a quartet do not allow mentioning all the other requirements for reaching awakening. One of the indispensable requirements is in fact highlighted at least in the Chinese versions, namely the development of insight.