Introduction

In the present chapter I explore the significance of the realization of the four truths as the fulfilment of right view attained with stream-entry, based on a translation and study of the Saṃyukta-āgama parallel to the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta. For a better appreciation of the scheme of the four truths, I then turn to another discourse in the same Saṃyukta-āgama that compares the four truths to the medical analysis carried out by a skilful physician.

The Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya describes various ways of attaining right view.[n.1] [6] MN 9 at MN I 46,15 to 55,25. This discourse has the following parallels:

• a discourse in the Madhyama-āgama,[n.2] [7a] MĀ 29 at T I 461b22 to 464b15.
• a discourse in the Saṃyukta-āgama,[n.3] [7b] SĀ 344 at T II 94b2 to 95b9.
• a Sanskrit fragment parallel.[n.4] [9] S 474 folio 16V9 to 18V5, Tripāṭhī 1962: 50–54; a new edition, additional fragments, and a juxtaposition with the two Chinese parallels can be found in Chung and Fukita 2011: 242–263; for parallels to SĀ 344 cf. also Chung 2008: 113.

In what follows I translate the Saṃyukta-āgama version as a basis for evaluating the significance of the approaches to the attainment of right view described in this discourse.[n.5] [10] On right view cf. also Anālayo 2006b.

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Translation (1)[n.6] [11] The translated discourse is SĀ 344 at T II 94b2 to 95b9. For ease of comparison, I adopt the paragraph numbering used in the English translation of the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta in Ñāṇamoli 1995/2005: 132–144. In the notes to the translation, I focus on a few selected differences between the parallel versions; for a comparative study of MN 9 in the light of its parallels cf. Anālayo 2011b: 66–73. All abbreviations in the translation are found in the original.

[Discourse to Koṭṭhita][n.7] [12] Adopting the title suggested by Akanuma 1929/1990: 48.

1. Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was staying at Rājagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, at the Squirrels' Feeding Ground.[n.8] [13] The location in MN 9 at MN I 46,15 is Jeta's Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Sāvatthī. MĀ 29 at T I 461b24 agrees with SĀ 344 on the location; fragment S 474 folio 16V9 in Tripāṭhī 1962: 50 or 16r9 in Chung and Fukita 2011: 242 has an abbreviated reference to Rājagṛha. At that time, the venerable Sāriputta and the venerable Mahākoṭṭhita were staying at Mount Vulture Peak. Then, in the afternoon, the venerable Mahākoṭṭhita rose from his meditation, approached the [venerable] Sāriputta, and exchanged greetings. Having exchanged greetings, he withdrew to sit to one side and said to the venerable Sāriputta: "I would like to ask a question, are you free to answer it?"[n.9] [14] As already pointed out by Waldschmidt 1957/1967: 296 in a summary of the contents of SĀ 344, MN 9 at MN I 46,16 instead reports that Sāriputta addressed the monks in general. According to MĀ 29 at T I 461b27, Mahākoṭṭhita replied to questions posed by Sāriputta. The fragment S 474 folio 16V11 in Tripāṭhī 1962: 50 or 16r11 in Chung and Fukita 2011: 242 agrees with SĀ 344. For a discussion of such variations regarding the identity of a speaker cf. Anālayo 2007g.

2. The venerable Sāriputta said to the venerable Mahākoṭṭhita: "Just ask, friend, knowing it I shall answer." The venerable Mahākoṭṭhita said to the venerable Sāriputta: "Having accomplished what factors is a learned noble disciple in this Dharma and discipline reckoned to be endowed with [right] view, to have accomplished straight view, to have accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, to have penetrated the right Dharma, to have attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma?"

3. The venerable Sāriputta said: "Venerable Mahākoṭṭhita, [this takes place if] a learned noble disciple understands unwholesome states as they really are, understands the roots of unwholesomeness as they really are, understands wholesome states as they really are, and understands the roots of wholesomeness as they really are.

4. "How does one understand unwholesome states as they really are? Unwholesome bodily actions, verbal actions, and mental actions – these are reckoned unwholesome states.[n.10] [15] MN 9 at MN 47,5 here (and below when defining what is wholesome) instead lists the ten courses of action, kammapatha. MĀ 29 at T I 461c4 and fragment S 474 folio 16R3 in Tripāṭhī 1962: 51 or 16v3 in Chung and Fukita 2011: 242 agree with SĀ 344 on employing the three types of action – bodily, verbal and mental – to define what is unwholesome and what is wholesome. In this way one understands unwholesome states as they really are.

5. "How does one understand the roots of unwholesomeness as they really are? There are three roots of unwholesomeness: greed is a root of unwholesomeness, hatred is a root of unwholesomeness, and delusion is a root of unwholesomeness – these are reckoned the [three] roots of unwholesomeness. In this way one understands the roots of unwholesomeness as they really are.

6. "How does one understand wholesome states as they really are? Wholesome bodily actions, verbal actions, and mental actions – these are reckoned wholesome states. In this way one understands wholesome states as they really are.

7. "How does one understand the roots of wholesomeness as they really are? That is, there are three roots of wholesomeness: non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion – these are reckoned the three roots of wholesomeness. In this way one understands the roots of wholesomeness as they really are.

8. "Venerable Mahākoṭṭhita, in this way a learned noble disciple understands unwholesome states as they really are, understands the roots of unwholesomeness as they really are, understands wholesome states as they really are, and understands the roots of wholesomeness as they really are. This is the reason why in this Dharma and discipline [a learned noble disciple] is endowed with right view, has accomplished straight view, has accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, has penetrated the right Dharma, has attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma."[n.11] [16] MN 9 at MN I 47,22 here (and below in relation to each of the subsequent topics) differs from the other versions in as much as it speaks of abandoning the underlying tendencies as well as ignorance and making an end of dukkha. I already drew attention to this substantial difference in Anālayo 2005: 5f.

9. The venerable Mahākoṭṭhita said to the venerable Sāriputta: "Indeed, it is like this. Is there yet another way?"

10. The venerable Sāriputta replied: "There is [yet another way]. [That is], if a learned noble disciple understands the nutriments as they really are, understands the arising of the nutriments, the cessation of the nutriments, and the path to the cessation of the nutriments as it really is.

11. "How does one understand the nutriments as they really are? That is, there are four nutriments. What are the four? The first is the nutriment of coarse edible food, the second is the nutriment of subtle touch, the third is the nutriment of mental intention, and the fourth is the nutriment of consciousness – these are reckoned the nutriments. In this way one understands the nutriments as they really are.

"How does one understand the arising of the nutriments as it really is? That is, there is craving for future existence, together with delight and lust, enjoying and being attached to this and that – this is reckoned the arising of the nutriments. In this way one understands the arising of the nutriments as it really is.

"How does one understand the cessation of the nutriments as it really is? If that craving for future existence, together with delight and lust, enjoying and being attached to this and that, is eradicated without remainder, abandoned, vomited out, eradicated, fades away, ceases, becomes appeased and disappears – this is reckoned the cessation of the nutriments. In this way one understands the cessation of the nutriments as it really is.

"How does one understand the path to the cessation of the nutriments as it really is? That is, there is the noble eightfold path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration – this is reckoned the path to the cessation of the nutriments. In this way one understands the path to the cessation of the nutriments as it really is.

12. "If a learned noble disciple thus understands these nutriments as they really are, understands the arising of the nutriments as it really is, understands the cessation of the nutriments as it really is, and understands the path to the cessation of the nutriments as it really is; then this is the reason why a learned noble disciple in this right Dharma and discipline is endowed with right view, has accomplished straight view, has accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, has penetrated the right Dharma, has attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma."

68. The venerable Mahākoṭṭhita again asked the venerable Sāriputta: "Indeed, it is like this. Is there yet another way?"[n.12] [17] From this point onwards the sequence of topics in the parallel versions differs.

69. The venerable Sāriputta replied: "Venerable Mahākoṭṭhita, there is yet another way. [That is, if] a learned noble disciple understands the ⟨influxes⟩ as they really are,[n.13] [18] In what follows my translation is based on emending 病 to 漏, following Yìnshùn 1983b: 52 note 3. understands the arising of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is, understands the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is, and understands the path to the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is.

70. "How does one understand the existence of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is? That is, there are three ⟨influxes⟩: the ⟨influx⟩ of sensuality, the ⟨influx⟩ of becoming, and the ⟨influx⟩ of ignorance – these are reckoned the ⟨influxes⟩. In this way one understands the ⟨influxes⟩ as they really are.

"How does one understand the arising of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is? With the arising of ignorance there is the arising of the ⟨influxes⟩ – this is reckoned understanding the arising of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is.

"How does one understand the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is? With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩. In this way one understands the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is.

"How does one understand the path to the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is? That is, there is the noble eightfold path … as explained above. In this way one understands the path to the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is.

71. "If a learned noble disciple understands the ⟨influxes⟩ as they really are, understands the arising of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is, understands the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is, and understands the path to the cessation of the ⟨influxes⟩ as it really is; then for this reason a learned noble disciple in this Dharma and discipline is endowed with right view … up to … has awoken to this right Dharma."

13. The venerable Mahākoṭṭhita [again] asked the venerable Sāriputta: "Indeed, it is like this. Is there yet another way?"

14. The venerable Sāriputta replied: "Venerable Mahākoṭṭhita, there is yet another way. [That is, if] a learned noble disciple understands dukkha as it really is, understands the arising of dukkha as it really is, understands the cessation of dukkha as it really is, and understands the path to the cessation of dukkha as it really is.

15. "How does one understand dukkha as it really is? That is, birth is dukkha, old age is dukkha, disease is dukkha, death is dukkha, separation from what is liked is dukkha, association with what is disliked is dukkha,[n.14] [18] Instead of taking up separation from what is liked and association with what is disliked, the Ce and the Ee editions at MN I 48,32 only list sorrow, lamentation, etc., as manifestations of dukkha, to which the Be and Se editions add separation from what is liked and association with what is disliked. not attaining what one wishes is dukkha, in this way, said in short, the five aggregates of clinging are dukkha – this is reckoned to be dukkha. In this way one understands dukkha as it really is.

16. "How does one understand the arising of dukkha as it really is? Craving for future existence, together with delight and lust, ⟨enjoying⟩ and being attached to this and that – this is reckoned the arising of dukkha.[n.15] My translation is based on emending 集 to 樂, following Yìnshùn 1983b: 52 note 4. In this way one understands the arising of dukkha as it really is.[n.16] [19] MĀ 29 at T I 462b1 differs from the other versions in as much as it traces the arising of dukkha to old age and death.

17. "How does one understand the cessation of dukkha as it really is? If that craving for future existence, together with delight and lust, ⟨enjoying⟩ and being attached to this and that, is eradicated without remainder … up to … becomes appeased and disappears – this is reckoned the cessation of dukkha. In this way one understands the cessation of dukkha as it really is.

18. "How does one understand the path to the cessation of dukkha as it really is? That is, there is the noble eightfold path … as explained above – this is reckoned the path to the cessation of dukkha. In this way one understands the path to the cessation of dukkha as it really is.

19. "[If] in this way a learned noble disciple understands dukkha as it really is, understands the arising of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha, and the path to the cessation of dukkha as it really is; then in this way a noble disciple in our Dharma and discipline is endowed with right view, has accomplished straight view, has accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, has penetrated the right Dharma,[n.17] [20] Adopting the variant 法, in conformity with earlier formulations; cf. also Yìnshùn 1983b: 52 note 5. The text here has 道 instead, which would result in the alternative of having arrived at the right "path". has attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma."

20. [The venerable Mahākoṭṭhita] again asked the venerable Sāriputta: "Indeed, the Dharma is like this. Again, is there yet another way?"

21. The venerable Sāriputta replied: "There is yet another way. That is, [if] a learned noble disciple understands old age and death as they really are, understands the arising of old age and death as it really is, understands the cessation of old age and death as it really is, and understands the path to the cessation of old age and death as it really is … as explained earlier in the Discourse on Analysis.[n.18] [21] SĀ 344 at T II 95a18: 如前分別經說. The corresponding section in Sanskrit fragment S 474 folio 17R6 has, according to Tripāṭhī 1962: 53, preserved a reference to [d](i)sūtre, which Tripāṭhī 1962: 195 then restores to (pūrvavad yathā ā)d(i)sūtre, translated as "wie vorher im Ādisūtra" (this being the restored title of another discourse in Tripāṭhī 1962: 157, parallel to the Vibhaṅga-sutta, SN 12.2). However, Chung and Fukita 2011: 245 read the same fragment 17v6 as just [g]. sūtre. In fact the title of the discourse referred to in SĀ 344 is "analysis" (in Āgama texts, 分別 regularly renders vibhaṅga, "analysis"; cf. also Hirakawa 1997: 183), which would fit the reading in Chung and Fukita 2011: 245. 前, which can indeed render ādi, does not belong to the title, but is part of the recurrent phrase 如前 used in the Saṃyukta-āgama to refer to an exposition given earlier in the same collection. Thus the remark in SĀ 344 seems to intend the exposition of the nature of old age and death provided in SĀ 298. Although the Taishō edition does not give a title for this discourse, one of two parallels to SĀ 298 is the "Discourse on Analysis", the Vibhaṅga-sutta, SN 12.2, which at SN II 2,27 gives an exposition of old age and death similar to what is found in SĀ 298 at T II 85b13 to b19; cf. also the corresponding Sanskrit fragment in Tripāṭhī 1962: 163. The passage to be supplemented at the present juncture would thus be an explanation of the nature of old age as manifesting in whiteness of hair, etc., and of the nature of death as becoming evident in the passing away of various living beings, etc.

22. "How does one understand the arising of old age and death as it really is? With the arising of birth there is the arising of old age and death, with the cessation of birth there is the cessation of old age and death. The path to the cessation of old age and death … that is, there is the noble eightfold path … as explained above.

23. "[If] a learned noble disciple thus understands old age and death as they really are … up to … and understands the path to the cessation of old age and death as it really is, then in this way a noble disciple in our Dharma and discipline is endowed with right view, has accomplished straight view, has accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, has penetrated the right Dharma, has attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma."

24–60. In the same way for birth … becoming … clinging … craving … feeling … contact … the six sense-spheres … nameand-form … consciousness … formations.

61. "[There is yet another way. That is, if] a noble disciple understands formations as they really are, understands the arising of formations, the cessation of formations, and the path to the cessation of formations as it really is.

62. "How does one understand formations as they really are? There are three types of formations: bodily formations, verbal formations, and mental formations. In this way one understands formations as they really are.

"How does one understand the arising of formations as it really is? With the arising of ignorance there is the arising of formations. In this way one understands the arising of formations as it really is.

"How does one understand the cessation of formations as it really is? With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of formations. In this way one understands the cessation of formations as it really is.

"How does one understand the path to the cessation of formations as it really is? That is, there is the noble eightfold path … as explained above.

63. "[Venerable] Mahākoṭṭhita, this is reckoned a noble disciple who understands formations as they really are, understands the arising of formations, the cessation of formations, and the path to the cessation of formations as it really is; who in our Dharma and discipline is endowed with right view, has accomplished straight view, has accomplished unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, has penetrated the right Dharma, has attained this right Dharma, and awoken to this right Dharma."

The [venerable] Mahākoṭṭhita again asked the venerable Sāriputta: "Yes, the Dharma is like this. Is there yet another way?"

The [venerable] Sāriputta replied: "Mahākoṭṭhita, why do you keep on pursuing this? Ultimately you cannot exhaust all discussion and get to the end of it. If a noble disciple has eradicated ignorance without a remainder and aroused knowledge, what more needs to be searched for?"[n.19] [22] Whereas MĀ 29 at T I 464b12 and fragment S 474 18V4 in Tripāṭhī 1962: 54 or 18r4 in Chung and Fukita 2011: 246 agree with SĀ 344 on reporting a rebuffing of an attempt to push the enquiry beyond ignorance, MN 9 at MN I 55,3 in a way does go beyond ignorance by turning to the influxes, presenting ignorance and the influxes in a reciprocal conditioning relationship; for a more detailed discussion cf. Anālayo 2011b: 71f.

Then, having discussed this matter together, these two virtuous men returned each to his original dwelling place.

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Study (1)

Sequential Variation

A comparison of the above-translated Saṃyukta-āgama discourse (SĀ 344) with its parallels brings to light a variation in the sequence of the approaches to right view. Such variations are a recurrent feature of orally transmitted material and often have relatively little bearing on the actual teaching given in the respective versions.[n.20] [23] Cf. Anālayo 2011b: 873–876. In the present case, whereas the Majjhima-nikāya version (MN 9) proceeds from nutriment directly to the four noble truths, the parallel versions first turn to the influxes. These are taken up at the very end of the Majjhima-nikāya version, preceded by also covering the theme of ignorance (see table 2).

Table 2: Sequence of Topics in SĀ 344 (etc.) and MN 9

SĀ 344, MĀ 29 & Skt.:	MN 9:
wholesome/unwholesome[n.21] [24] The presentation in table 2 does not fully reflect all variations, as MĀ 29 examines the topic of unwholesomeness on its own, followed by turning to the topic of what is wholesome. Moreover, MĀ 29 and MN 9 give a full exposition of the items that come between old age and formations, whereas SĀ 344 and the Sanskrit fragments refer to these only in an abbreviated manner.	wholesome/unwholesome
nutriments	nutriments
influxes	four noble truths
four noble truths	old age (up to) formations
old age (up to) formations	ignorance
	influxes

Attainment of Right View

Another and rather significant difference recurs in relation to the main topic of the discourse: the attainment of right view. In order to appreciate this difference, in what follows I briefly survey the implications of the attainment of stream-entry elsewhere in the discourses, after which I return to the presentation in the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta and its parallels.

A recurrent description in the early Buddhist discourses depicts the attainment of stream-entry taking place during the delivery of a gradual talk by the Buddha. Such a gradual talk begins by taking up the importance of morality and generosity and the need to renounce sensuality. When in the course of hearing this instruction the listener's mind reaches a state free from the hindrances, the Buddha then expounds the four noble truths. Upon receiving this teaching on the four noble truths, the "eye of the Dharma" arises in the listener's mind, which would correspond to the successful attainment of stream-entry.

The basic pattern underlying such instances points to a progression from an intellectual appreciation of the four noble truths to their experiential realization. Bodhi (1991: 4) points out that "experiential right view is the penetration of the truth … in one's own immediate experience … to arrive at direct penetration, one must begin with a correct conceptual grasp of the teaching and transform that grasp from intellectual comprehension to direct perception … if conceptual right view can be compared to a hand, a hand that grasps the truth by way of concepts, then experiential right view can be compared to an eye – the eye of wisdom that sees directly into the true nature of existence."

With such experiential right view attained, the following three fetters are reckoned to have been permanently eradicated:

• the fetter of personality view, sakkāyadiṭṭhi, in the sense of belief in the notion of a permanent self,
• the fetter of doubt, vicikicchā, in particular uncertainty regarding the nature of what is wholesome and what is unwholesome,
• the fetter of dogmatic clinging to rules and vows, sīlabbataparāmāsa, as in themselves sufficient for reaching liberation.[n.22] [3] Sn 231 and a parallel to this stanza in the Mahāvastu, Senart 1882b: 291,23, indicate that the eradication of these three fetters takes place at the moment of stream-entry itself. That the experience of stream-entry was considered a clearly recognizable event that takes place at a particular time can be deduced from AN 3.12 at AN I 107,6, which lists insight into the four noble truths as they really are (an implicit reference to the attainment of at least stream-entry) alongside going forth and the attainment of the destruction of the influxes (a reference to full awakening) as three events worth being remembered.

The stream that has been entered at this point is the noble eightfold path,[n.23] [4] SN 55.5 at SN V 347,25 and its parallel SĀ 843 at T II 215b17. and the stream-enterer is now reckoned one who is "endowed with view".[n.24] [5] Cf., e.g., MN 115 at MN III 64,17, which stipulates various impossibilities for a stream-enterer, referred to as being "a person endowed with view", diṭṭhisampanno puggalo. The formulations employed in the Chinese parallels in a way draw out the implications of this expression, as MĀ 181 at T I 724a6 speaks of a "person with a vision of the truth", 見諦人, and T 776 at T XVII 713b26 of a "person with right view", 正見人. In other words, the stream-enterer has seen the four noble truths and attained what in early Buddhist thought fulfils right view.

Returning to the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta, the Pāli version concludes each exposition of how to have right view by mentioning the abandoning of the underlying tendencies to lust, to irritation, and to the conceited view 'I am', together with overcoming ignorance and making an end of dukkha. Such an indication is not made at all in the parallel versions.

A closer consideration shows this statement to be out of context, since to overcome ignorance and to make an end of dukkha represent full awakening. The Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta follows each reference to overcoming ignorance and making an end of dukkha by declaring that "to that extent" (ettāvatā) a noble disciple is endowed with right view and has gained perfect confidence in the teaching.[n.25] [26] Following the translation in CPD II 657 s.v. ettāvatā for the present passage.

Yet such right view and perfect confidence are already gained with stream-entry, at which stage the underlying tendencies are far from being abandoned, ignorance has not yet been fully overcome and the making an end of dukkha is still to be accomplished. Hence the expression "to that extent" does not tally with the content of the passage to which it refers.[n.26] [27] This impression is further supported by the circumstance that the commentary, Ps I 197,24, records a discussion between the rehearsing monks on the significance of the present passage, indicating that they also had difficulties reconciling the indications given in this passage with the main theme of the discourse. Here the Chinese and Sanskrit versions provide a rather significant corrective to the puzzling presentation in the Pāli version, clarifying that the issue at stake is indeed the attainment of stream-entry.

The Four Truths Scheme

Regarding the implications of stream-entry, the different versions are in agreement. Besides the basic distinction between what is unwholesome and what is wholesome, all versions present the attainment of right view by working their way through the nutriments and the links of dependent arising (paṭicca samuppāda) that trace the arising of dukkha to ignorance, i.e.:

• old age and death,
• birth,
• becoming,
• clinging,
• craving,
• feeling,
• contact,
• six sense-spheres,
• name-and-form,
• consciousness,
• formations.[n.27] [28] An insight-related approach that also takes up several links of dependent arising individually can be found, e.g., in the Dvayatānupassanā-sutta, Sn 724–743.

In this way, the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta and its parallels present the understanding gained with stream-entry as involving insight into the basic principle of conditionality in relation to any of these links, an insight expressed by way of the basic pattern that underlies the four noble truths.

Bodhi (1991: 5) explains that "each phenomenon to be comprehended by right view is expounded in terms of its individual nature, its arising, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation."[n.28] [29] Cf. also Anderson 1999/2001: 98, who in relation to MN 9 comments that "the analysis embedded in the four noble truths is used to dissect each item in this list." Each item, as pointed out by Fuller 2005: 61, entails "an understanding of things according to the four truths and dependent-origination". That is, besides explicitly taking up the four noble truths as one item in the discussion, each of the other topics is presented with the help of the basic scheme that underlies the four truths, as shown in table 3.

Table 3: Basic Pattern of the Exposition

1st	item in question
2nd	cause of the item
3rd	opposite of the item
4th	cause of opposite of the item

With the four noble truths, this basic pattern then becomes:

1st truth	dukkha
2nd truth	arising of dukkha (i.e., its cause)
3rd truth	cessation of dukkha (i.e., the opposite of dukkha)
4th truth	path to the cessation of dukkha (i.e., cause of opposite)

So the exposition of any of the topics taken up in the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta and its parallels combines understanding something (1 and 3) with understanding its causes (2 and 4). The description of such an understanding proceeds from the particular item to its cause (1 and 2), followed by turning to its opposite and then to the cause responsible for the opposite (3 and 4).

Before examining this pattern in more detail, it needs to be noted that in many instances the qualification "noble" appears to be a later addition to references to the "four noble truths".[n.29] [30] Cf. Norman 1982/1984 and Anālayo 2006a. Hence, in what follows, I will just speak of the "four truths".

Now the basic scheme of four truths that underlies the exposition in the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta and its parallels mirrors a diagnostic scheme apparently employed in Indian medicine. The correspondence that results from this parallelism is summarized in table 4.

Table 4: The Scheme of the Four Truths

disease	dukkha
pathogen	craving (arising of dukkha)
health	Nirvāṇa (cessation of dukkha)
cure	eightfold path

In other words, after recognizing the 'disease' of dukkha, craving is identified as the pathogen responsible for the arising of dukkha, the realization of Nirvāṇa is envisaged as the condition of health to be reached, wherein dukkha comes to cease, and the eightfold path constitutes the actual cure that needs to be undertaken. This correlation between the four truths and a diagnostic scheme taken from the realm of medicine adds a thoroughly pragmatic flavour to what tradition reckons to be one of the most central teachings of the Buddha.

A short discourse that takes this correlation as its main theme can be found in the same Saṃyukta-āgama preserved in Chinese translation (T 99) that also contains the above-translated parallel to the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta. This discourse, however, does not have a parallel in the Pāli canon. Nevertheless, several versions of this discourse are extant. These are:

• a discourse in another Saṃyukta-āgama (T 100) that has been partially preserved in Chinese translation,[n.30] [31] SĀ2 254 at T II 462c9 to 463a23; partially translated into German in Kudara and Zieme 1995: 47–48; for extracts rendered into French cf. Demiéville 1974: 229. The school affiliation of this Saṃyukta-āgama is a matter of continued discussion, recent contributions to this topic by Bingenheimer 2011: 23–44 and Bucknell 2011 are in favour of the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition. In the present case, however, SĀ 389 and SĀ2 254 show such substantial differences as to make it fairly probable that they stem from quite distinct lines of transmission (although these could both be from within the Mūlasarvāstivāda fold; cf. the study of different Mūlasarvāstivāda prātimokṣas by Emms 2012).
• a discourse found as an individual translation in Chinese,[n.31] [32] T 219 at T IV 802a16 to b20, the "Discourse on the Simile of the Physician", 醫喻經.
• a discourse preserved in Uighur fragments,[n.32] [33] Kudara and Zieme 1995: 47–52; due to my ignorance of Uighur, my discussion of this version is based on the German translation provided by the authors.
• a discourse quotation in Śamathadeva's repertory of canonical quotations in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, the Abhidharmakośopāyikāṭīkā extant in Tibetan,[n.33] [34] D 4094 nyu 1b1 to 2b6 or Q 5595 thu 32b6 to 33b6. The present discourse quotation takes its occasion from a reference to a doctor endowed with four qualities in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, Pradhan 1967: 328,9; cf. also Pāsādika 1989: 100 (§393).
• a partial discourse quotation in the Abhidharmakośavyākhya,[n.34] [35] Wogihara 1936: 514,27 to 515,2, introduced as the Vyādhyādi-sūtra, the "Discourse on Disease, etc."; a reference to the four skills of a physician, described in this discourse, can be found in the Yogācārabhūmi, T 1579 at T XXX 356a8, noted in Demiéville 1974: 230; for a Sanskrit counterpart cf. Wezler 1984: 311.
• and a partial discourse quotation in the commentary on the Arthaviniścaya-sūtra.[n.35] [36] Samtani 1971: 159,6 to 160,7.

In what follows I translate the Saṃyukta-āgama version (T 99) and then evaluate its significance.

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Translation (2)

[Discourse on the Physician][n.36] [37] The translated discourse is SĀ 389 at T II 105a24 to b20; for the title I decided on a short form based on the titles given in the Chinese translations of the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, where T 1558 at T XXIX 114a14 (trsl. 玄奘) speaks of the "Discourse on the Good Physician", 良醫經, whereas T 1559 at T XXIX 266b17 (trsl. Paramārtha) speaks of the "Discourse on the Simile of the Physician", 醫譬經. Extracts from SĀ 389 have been translated into French by Demiéville 1974: 228.

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was staying at Vārāṇasī in the Deer Park at Isipatana. At that time, the Blessed One told the monks:

"By accomplishing four principles one is reckoned a great royal physician,[n.37] [38] In relation to SĀ 389 at T II 105a26: 名曰大醫王者所應王之具, Wezler 1984: 320 suggests to emend 者 to 之, thereby bringing the passage in line with the reading rājārhaś ca bhavati in the Abhidharmakośavyākhya, Wogihara 1936: 514,28, an expression found similarly in the commentary on the Arthaviniścaya-sūtra, Samtani 1971: 160,1; cf. also D 4094 nyu 1b2 or Q 5595 thu 32b7: rgyal po la ’os shing. According to another emendation suggested by Yìnshùn 1983b: 115 note 1, the reading would be 名曰大醫王者所 應具. In both cases the great physician would no longer be qualified as "royal". I have not followed either of these suggestions as later on SĀ 389 at T II 105b10 also qualifies the Buddha as being a "great royal physician", 大醫王. Since this appears to intend a comparison with the description of the worldly physician given at the present juncture of the discourse, it seems that the same sense of a "great royal physician" applies also to the present passage. This reading may well be the result of an error, in fact a qualification of the Buddha as a "royal" physician is not found in the parallel versions (although T 219 at T IV 802a23 introduces the simile of the physician with 得名醫王), which instead refer to him as a physician who is "unsurpassed", anuttaro / 無上 / bla na med pa; cf. Wogihara 1936: 514,33, SĀ2 254 at T II 462c14, and D 4094 nyu 2b2 or Q 5595 thu 33b1. Nevertheless, for the sake of preserving the continuity of the exposition in SĀ 389, it seems to me preferable to render the present section of the text without emendation. The notion of someone being a royal physician, like, e.g., the famous Jīvaka, would presumably have been an easily understood reference in the ancient Indian setting. A connection between the simile of the skilled physician and kingship comes up also in T 219 at T IV 802b18, which in its concluding section refers to the contrast between a wheel-turning king and the Buddha. This suggests that the contrast between the royal power of a wheel-turning king and the Buddha's superior dominion by turning the wheel of Dharma is similar to the present contrast between a royal physician and the Buddha's superior 'medical' skill by teaching the Dharma; on the cakravartin motif cf. also Anālayo 2011g. worthy of being the possession of a king, and of being a member of the king's [retinue]. What are the four?

"One: being skilled in understanding a disease; two: being skilled in understanding the source of a disease; three: being skilled in understanding the cure for a disease; four: being skilled in understanding when a disease has been cured and will not appear again.

"How is someone reckoned to be a good doctor who is skilled in understanding a disease? That is, a good doctor is skilled in understanding various types of disease as they are – he is reckoned a good doctor who is skilled in understanding a disease. "How is someone a good doctor who is skilled in understanding the source of a disease? That is, a good doctor is skilled in understanding that this disease has arisen because of wind, this has arisen due to phlegm,[n.38] Adopting the variant 痰 instead of 癖; cf. also Yìnshùn 1983b: 115 note 2. this has arisen due to mucus, this has arisen due to various colds, this has arisen because of an actual event,[n.39] I suppose this means an accident. this has arisen due to seasonal [influence] – he is reckoned a good doctor who is skilled in understanding the source of a disease.

"How is someone a good doctor who is skilled in understanding the cure of a disease? That is, a good doctor is skilled in understanding that for various types of disease one should administer medication, or should [bring about] vomiting, or should [administer] a laxative, or should [undertake] nasal instillations, or should [administer] fumigation, or should bring about perspiration – on [administering] in this manner various cures he is reckoned a good doctor who is skilled in understanding the cure of a disease.

"How is someone a good doctor who is skilled in understanding when a disease has been cured and will never appear again in the future? That is, a good doctor is skilled in curing various types of disease so that they are completely eliminated and in the future will never arise again – he is reckoned a good doctor who is skilled in understanding how to cure a disease so that it will not appear again.[n.40] [39] The detailed exposition of the four principles is absent from SĀ2 254, which after enumerating these four principles in short at T II 462c13 directly proceeds to the comparison with the Tathāgata. The discourse quotations in the Abhidharmakośavyākhya and the commentary on the Arthaviniścaya-sūtra, Wogihara 1936: 514,31 and Samtani 1971: 160,3, also do not go into the details regarding what the four qualities of a skilled doctor imply. T 219 at T IV 802a26 and the discourse quotation in D 4094 nyu 1b5 or Q 5595 thu 33a2, however, do have such a detailed exposition.

"A Tathāgata, who is an arahant and fully awakened is also just like that, being a great royal physician who has accomplished four qualities to cure the 'disease' of living beings.[n.41] [40] In a version of the simile of the skilled physician in the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa (大智度論, on the title cf. Demiéville 1950/1973: 470 note 1), T 1509 at T XXV 235c12, translated by Lamotte 1944/1970: 1515, the physician who only knows the four skills (corresponding to the four truths), 但知病, 知 病因, 知差病, 知差病藥, illustrates the śrāvaka, whereas a bodhisattva is like a physician who additionally knows all types of diseases and medicines. What are the four?

"That is, the Tathāgata understands that this is the noble truth of dukkha, knowing it as it really is; that this is the noble truth of the arising of dukkha, knowing it as it really is; that this is the noble truth of the cessation of dukkha, knowing it as it really is; and that this is the noble truth of the way to the cessation of dukkha, knowing it as it really is.

"Monks, the secular good doctor does not understand as it really is the fundamental cure for birth, he does not understand as it really is the fundamental cure for old age, for disease, for death, for sadness, for sorrow, for vexation, and for dukkha.[n.42] [41] SĀ2 254 at T II 462c17 compares the predicament of the first truth to a poisoned arrow, a simile also found in the Uighur version, Kudara and Zieme 1995: 48; cf. also Samtani 1971: 160,1.

"The Tathāgata, who is an arahant and fully awakened, being a great royal physician, does understand as it really is the fundamental cure for birth, does understand as it really is the fundamental cure for old age, for disease, for death, for sadness, for sorrow, for vexation, and for dukkha. For this reason the Tathāgata, who is an arahant and fully awakened, is reckoned a great royal physician."[n.43] [42] SĀ2 254 at T II 462c26 and the Uighur version, Kudara and Zieme 1995: 48–52, continue with the venerable Vaṅgīsa proclaiming a set of stanzas in praise of the Buddha, paralleling SĀ 1220 at T II 332c16. When the Buddha had spoken this discourse, hearing what the Buddha said the monks were delighted and received it respectfully.

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Study (2)

The above-translated discourse from the Saṃyukta-āgama (T 99) shows considerable similarities to the individual translation and the discourse quotation in the Abhidharmakośopāyikāṭīkā. However, the version preserved in the other Saṃyukta-āgama (T 100), together with the Uighur fragments, differs rather substantially. In these versions we find:

• no detailed exposition of the four skills of a doctor,
• use of a simile of a poisoned arrow,
• the monk Vaṅgīsa praises the Buddha with stanzas.

This makes it probable that the extant versions reflect distinct lines of transmission of the discourse that compares the Buddha's teaching of the four truths to four medical skills of a physician.

The similarity between the Buddhist scheme of the four truths and medical science in India has been noted by a range of Buddhist scholars.[n.44] [43] Cf., e.g., Kern 1896: 46, de La Vallée Poussin 1903, Lanman 1918: 362, Conze 1951/1960: 17, Frauwallner 1953: 184, Pande 1957: 398, Dutt 1960/1971: 140, Schlingloff 1962: 70, Bareau 1964: 33, Gunaratna 1968/2008: 9, de Silva 1973/ 1992: 166, Rewata 1997: 55f, Williams 2000: 42, and Gombrich 2009: 161. Already towards the end of the nineteenth century, Oldenberg pointed out that it is difficult to ascertain if the Buddhists indeed borrowed this scheme.[n.45] [44] Oldenberg 1881/1961: 374 note 2, after introducing the parallelism between the four truths and the four aspects of medicine, comments: "ob in Bezug auf die vierfache Gliederung der Buddhismus der entlehnende Teil ist, wird nicht festgestellt werden können; daß die Formulierung der vier Sätze sein Eigentum ist, scheint unzweifelhaft."

A few decades later, Har Dayal and Filliozat highlighted the fact that there is no proof that ancient Indian medicine had a scheme corresponding to the four truths previous to the time of early Buddhism,[n.46] [45] Har Dayal 1932/1970: 159 points out that "it has been suggested that the Buddhists borrowed the formula from the medical treatises. But medical science was not highly developed in India in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. It is more likely that the writers on medicine were indebted to Buddhist literature for the four terms." Filliozat 1934: 301 comments that "sans doute il était parfaitement logique de penser que les vérités applicables à la douleur en général pouvaient s'appliquer à la douleur physique en particulier, mais il était pour le moins hardi d'en inférer que le Bouddhisme les avait empruntées à la médecine. Il eût fallu prouver que cette médecine les possédait avant le Bouddhisme." an argument presented in a more detailed manner by Wezler (1984: 312–324).

The absence of any pre-Buddhist reference to the fourfold scheme is indeed of considerable significance. Yet I am not sure if this inevitably entails that such a scheme was entirely unknown at the time of the Buddha, especially in view of the fact, noted by Wezler (1984: 315), that "even the most ancient of the so-called Āyurvedic texts are of later origin."

It seems to me that the most natural way of reading the abovetranslated Saṃyukta-āgama discourse and its parallels would be as presentations that assume some such diagnostic scheme to be already in existence and known among the target audience of the discourse. In view of this, it seems at least possible that the Buddhist texts preserve a record of what at that time was a diagnostic scheme known and in use in daily life at the popular level.

Even though we do not have any corroboration of the existence of the four-fold scheme of diagnosis in pre-Buddhist texts, at least the perspective afforded by the early Buddhist discourses suggests that the formulation of the four truths employed a diagnostic scheme already known in order to describe the nature of dukkha and its Buddhist cure.

Although the above-translated Saṃyukta-āgama discourse is without a counterpart in the Pāli canon, elsewhere in the Pāli discourses the Buddha is regularly referred to as a physician.[n.47] [46] Cf., e.g., Rhys Davids 1907: 118 s.v. bhisakka (1) and 143 s.v. sallakatto, as well as the survey in Collins 1998: 229f. A discourse in the Aṅguttara-nikāya even comes quite close to the above presentation. This discourse describes how through the Buddha's teaching one's sorrow and grief, etc., are dispelled, employing precisely the expressions used in the standard description of the first truth to define dukkha.[n.48] [47] AN 5.194 at AN III 238,9 speaks of dispelling one's sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā; for the same terms in the context of the first truth description cf., e.g., the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta, MN 9 at MN I 48,32. Such dispelling is then illustrated with the example of being quickly relieved from a disease by a skilled doctor. Thus it is only the explicit correlation of the four truths to a medical scheme of diagnosis that is not found in the Pāli discourses.[n.49] [48] Wezler 1984: 320 suggests that because of the absence of a Pāli discourse counterpart to SĀ 389 or SĀ2 254 there is "a high degree of probability that it forms but a later addition; for it is quite impossible to discover a motive for a transmitter dropping it." I would venture to disagree with this conclusion, as the reason for the absence of a version of this discourse in the Pāli canon need not be intentional dropping only. The same could just be due to the vicissitudes of oral transmission. There are a fair number of discourses in the Chinese Āgamas that do not show any evident sign of lateness, even though they have no Pāli parallel. The same holds also the other way round, in that Pāli discourses without a parallel in the Chinese Āgamas need not be late. In fact I would interpret the Purāṇa episode at Vin II 290,5 to imply that the early reciters did not consider even the Pāli 'canon' as a complete record of the Buddha's sayings. In sum, the lack of a Pāli parallel to a discourse in a Chinese Āgama collection is in itself not sufficient evidence for coming to a conclusion about the lateness of this discourse. Yet such a correlation can be found in the Vimuttimagga and in the Visuddhimagga.[n.50] [49] T 1648 at T XXXII 452c17 explains that "it is just as a clever physician first sees the source of the disease, then enquires about the conditions of the disease, and for the sake of extinguishing the disease prescribes the medicine appropriate to the disease. In this way, the disease can be understood to be like dukkha. In this way, the causes of the disease can be understood to be like the arising [of dukkha]. In this way, the eradication of the disease can be understood to be like the cessation [of dukkha]. In this way, the medicine can be understood to be like the path." Similarly, according to Vism 512,7: "the truth of dukkha is like a disease, the truth of the arising [of dukkha] is like the cause of the disease, the truth of the cessation [of dukkha] is like the cure of the disease, and the truth of the path like the medicine." On the relationship between these two works cf. Anālayo 2009f.

Regarding the enumeration of the four skills of a physician in the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse, it is noteworthy that this does not fit the sequence of the standard listing of the four truths.[n.51] [50] This has already been pointed out by de La Vallée Poussin 1903: 580 (in relation to the discourse quotation in the Abhidharmakośavyākhya); cf. also Demiéville 1974: 230 and Wezler 1984: 320. The third medical ability is "being skilled in understanding the cure of a disease", while the fourth is "being skilled in understanding when a disease has been cured and will not appear again". In the scheme of the four truths, however, the third truth is about the cessation of dukkha, i.e., when the 'disease' has been cured, whereas the fourth truth is about the path that leads to this goal, the 'cure of the disease'.

Wezler (1984: 322f) notes that "the order of enumeration of the four skills of a physician … does not perfectly correspond to the traditional order of succession of the Four Noble Truths" and draws the conclusion that the source of this simile "cannot have been a Buddhist text; it was in all probability a medical text, or, at least, the science of medicine."[n.52] [51] Wezler 1984: 323 then continues: "it was not until the quadruple division of the science of medicine originating in medical circles became known to Buddhist authors that the Four Noble Truths as such were by way of comparison paralleled" to this scheme, however, "there is not the slightest evidence for the assumption that this fourfold division of the science of medicine … inspired the Buddha to his Four Noble Truths." Zysk 1991: 38 then goes further, as he holds that "the insignificance of the fourfold division in the medical tradition and its conceptual variation from the Four Noble Truths [i.e., the difference in sequence between the third and the fourth item] render any medical analogy in the Buddha's original teaching untenable."

Following this reasoning, it seems to me that the above variation would indeed make it probable that some form of the fourfold medical diagnosis was in existence at the time the ancestor of the above-translated discourse and its parallels came into being. Perhaps this was just a simple pattern regularly followed in medical practice in daily life, not yet a fully formulated component of ancient Indian medical theory. Such a simple medical diagnosis scheme was then apparently adopted with a sequential modification in the Buddhist texts, perhaps in order better to conform to the pattern of following a particular item (dukkha and then the cessation of dukkha) with a description of its cause (see table 3 above).[n.53] [52] An example where a Buddhist text adopts a sequence that differs from the standard pattern employed for the four truths can be found in a passage in MĀ 181 at T I 724a23 (absent from its parallel MN 115), which describes the situation of someone afflicted by severe pain who approaches non-Buddhist recluses and brahmins in the hope of getting relief as: "searching for dukkha, the arising of dukkha, the path [to liberation from] dukkha, and the cessation of dukkha", 求苦, 習苦, 趣苦, 苦盡者. The pattern adopted here for physical affliction to be cured by non-Buddhist teachers corresponds to the depiction of the skills of the physician in SĀ 389. For a translation and comparative study of MĀ 181 cf. Anālayo 2009a.

According to Halbfass (1991/1992: 245), however, "if the 'four noble truths' had, indeed, been borrowed from an earlier medical scheme, the intense sense of discovery, of a new and overwhelming insight, which the early Buddhists and apparently the Buddha himself attached to the 'four truths', would be hard to understand."

I am not sure if this is necessarily the case, since as far as I can see the four truths are merely a description, whereas the "new and overwhelming insight" that was discovered is rather the realization of awakening or Nirvāṇa.

The discourses indicate that, out of the tasks described in each of the four truths, it is the cessation of dukkha or Nirvāṇa that is to be "realized", which is, of course, the theme of the third truth. The implications of such a realization are then formulated with the help of the whole set of four truths, indicating that such realization involves also understanding dukkha, abandoning its cause, and developing the path.[n.54] [53] SN 56.29 at SN V 436,11 (on the formulation employed in the discourse cf. Weller 1940/1987 and Norman 1982/1984) and SĀ 382 at T II 104b17; cf. also Vism 507,21: paramatthato hi dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccan ti nibbānaṃ vuccati, which Harvey 2009b: 209 takes up in the context of an argument for rendering sacca as "reality" rather than as "truth". The employment of a medical scheme of diagnosis for the sake of describing this in a form easily understood by others need not be seen as taking away from the value of the realization itself.

Instead, for the four truths formulation to parallel medical diagnosis would be significant in so far as it deliberately employs medical terminology to express what has been realized. In the ancient Indian setting, which the early discourses depict as teeming with various philosophers ready to debate their views, the choice of a medical analogy would underline the pragmatic approach of early Buddhism.

In this way, the four truths formulation can be seen to emphasize a psychological form of analysis as a distinct feature of the Buddha's realization.[n.55] [54] Cf. also Demiéville 1974: 230, who in relation to the simile of the skilled physician comments that it suggests that the Buddha "concevait sa doctrine comme une thérapeutique". This would be well in keeping with a recurrent tendency in the early discourses towards psychological analysis, giving priority to understanding what happens in the mind.

A standard procedure in the early discourses illustrates a teaching with the help of a simile taken from the everyday experience of the audience. The comparison of the four truths to ancient Indian diagnosis appears to follow this pattern, in that it seems to be similar in kind to other comparisons of the four truths to some item or form of behaviour that must have been in existence in ancient India.

One example would be the simile of the elephant's footprint, which due to its size encompasses the footprints of any other animal. This imagery, clearly taken from direct experience in a country in which elephants exist, illustrates the comprehensive function of the four truths in relation to wholesome or skilful states.[n.56] [55a] MN 28 at MN I 184,26 and MĀ 30 at T I 464b23. According to Ñāṇaponika 1966/1981: 2, the simile conveys that "the Four Noble Truths comprise … all that is beneficial; i.e., all that is truly worth knowing and following after." Cousins 1996: 146 adds that "when … Sāriputta tells (M I 184) us that all skilful dhammas are included in the four noble truths, we should … interpret skilful dhammas here as referring to meditational states." Franke 1906: 368 notes a counterpart to the simile of the elephant's footprint in the Mahābhārata, where it illustrates the importance of non-violence, ahiṃsā; cf. also Neumann 1896/1995: 1141 note 451.

Another analogy highlighting the centrality of the four truths would be the simile of the handful of siṃsapā leaves compared to all of the leaves in a grove, something obviously reflecting actual circumstances during the delivery of the discourse in question. This simile compares the Buddha's disclosure of the four truths with what he had not disclosed.[n.57] [55b] SN 56.31 at SN V 437,19 and its parallel SĀ 404 at T II 108a29.

Yet another example is concerned with the going for refuge to shrines and trees, which can safely be assumed to describe contemporary behaviour patterns. A set of stanzas in the Dhammapada highlights that, instead of seeking out such refuges, one can find a true refuge in the direct vision of the four truths attained with stream-entry:

Seeing the four noble truths
With right wisdom:
Dukkha, the arising of dukkha,
The overcoming of dukkha,

And the noble eightfold path
That leads to the appeasement of dukkha.
This indeed is a safe refuge,
This is the best refuge,
Having gone for this refuge
One will be released from all dukkha.[n.58] [56] Dhp 190c+d (i.e. the last two lines), Dhp 191, and Dhp 192. Dhp-a III 246,21 explains that the reference to seeing with wisdom implies attainment of the path. Indic language parallels to these stanzas can be found in Uv 27.33c+d and 27.34–35, Bernhard 1965a: 349f, and in the Divyāvadāna, Cowell and Neil 1886: 164,12; stanzas Dhp 190c+d and 192 also have a parallel in the Patna Dharmapada stanzas 218c+d and 219, Cone 1989: 160.

These and other similes related to the four truths appear to be drawn directly from the everyday experience of the ancient Indian audience, making it fairly probable that, from the perspective of the early discourses, some sort of fourfold medical diagnostic should be understood to have already been in existence.