Introduction

The present chapter takes up the Bahudhātuka-sutta, which presents an analytical exposition of various doctrinal themes as well as a listing of impossibilities, according to which a woman is incapable of being a Buddha. Notably, this impossibility is not found at all in the Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Bahudhātuka-sutta.[n.1] This has already been noted by Nagata 2002: 282f. By way of providing a background to this significant difference, in what follows I briefly survey the position taken in other early discourses regarding the spiritual abilities of women, followed by a detailed study of the Bahudhātuka-sutta in the light of its parallels.

Other early Buddhist discourses indicate that the ability to attain any of the four stages of awakening is independent of gender. An explicit endorsement of women's abilities to reach awakening can be found in a discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and its counterparts in two Saṃyukta-āgama collections translated into Chinese, which allegorically refer to a set of wholesome qualities as a vehicle for approaching liberation. The three versions agree that by means of this vehicle the goal of liberation can be reached independent of whether the one who mounts the vehicle is a woman or a man.[n.2] SN 1.46 at SN I 33,11: "woman or man, by means of this vehicle [come] close to Nirvāṇa", itthiyā purisassa vā, sa ve etena yānena, nibbānasseva santike (Ce reads nibbāṇasseva); SĀ 587 at T II 156a22: "a sublime vehicle like this, mounted by a man or a woman, will emerge out of the thicket of birth and death, leading to the attainment of the peaceful state", 如是之妙乘, 男女 之所乘, 出生死叢林, 逮得安樂處; SĀ2 171 at T II 437a24: "men as well as women, are able to mount this vehicle, will certainly discard name-and-form, become dispassionate and eradicate birth and death", 男子若女人, 能乘是乘 者, 必捨棄名色, 離欲斷生死.

Such a clear assertion of gender equality in the spiritual realm is remarkable in view of what appears to have been a prevalent attitude towards women and their religious potential in ancient India.[n.3] Jaini 1991: 1 notes that the Digambara Jains "vehemently have insisted that one cannot attain mokṣa, emancipation of a soul from the cycles of birth and death (saṃsāra), as a female". Though the formation of the Digambara sect postdates the period of early Buddhism, this position is nevertheless noteworthy in the light of the indication given in the Jinacaritra that nuns consistently outnumbered monks throughout Jain history (Jinacaritra 134f, 161f, 176f and 214f counts 14.000 monks against 36.000 nuns under Mahāvīra; 16.000 monks against 38.000 nuns under Parśva; 18.000 monks against 40.000 nuns under Ariṣṭanemi; and 84.000 monks against 300.000 nuns under Ṛṣabha; cf. Jacobi 1879/1966: 66,5, 69,18, 71,22 and 75,18). Independent of the historical value of such figures, they do point to the eminent position nuns were believed to have held in the Jain monastic order since the most ancient times. That a whole section of the Jain tradition should eventually come to affirm that women are incapable of reaching liberation shows, as pointed out by Jaini 1991: 23, that "the prejudice against the female sex must have been deeprooted in the popular mind". For a study of Digambara nuns cf. Shāntā 1985/1997: 630–683. In another discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and its parallels in the two Saṃyukta-āgamas already mentioned, Māra appears as an advocate of ancient Indian machismo in this respect.[n.4] Rajapakse 1995: 13 note 14 comments that "it is interesting to note that the doubts in question are raised by Māra, the mythic-symbolic focus of evil in Buddhism, who thus assumes the role of a 'male chauvinist' in this setting. Māra generally functions ... as an opponent of goodness and spirituality"; cf. also Anālayo 2012a.

The three versions describe how Māra accosts a meditating nun and tries to unsettle her by suggesting that a woman's innate lack of wisdom renders her incapable of reaching realization.[n.5] SN 5.2 at SN I 129,14: "what is to be attained by seers ... that a woman with her two finger wisdom cannot attain", yan taṃ isīhi pattabbaṃ ... na taṃ dvaṅgulapaññāya, sakkā pappotum itthiyā (following the new Ee edition by Somaratne 1998: 283,11). SĀ 1199 at T II 326b1: "the state wherein seers dwell, this state is very difficult to attain, one with [just] a two finger's wisdom is unable to attain that state", 仙人所住處, 是處甚難得, 非彼二指智, 能 得到彼處; for a translation of SĀ 1199 cf. Anālayo 2012a. SĀ2 215 at T II 454a5: "what is attained by seers, that state is difficult to reach, with your despicable and defiled wisdom you will not attain a state like that", 仙聖之所得, 斯處難階及, 非汝鄙穢智, 獲得如是處. The reference to a woman's "two finger wisdom" in SN 5.2 and SĀ 1199 may have been a popular saying, as it recurs in a different context in the Mahāvastu in Senart 1897: 391,19 and 392,13; cf. also Gokhale 1976: 104, Kloppenborg 1995: 154, Bodhi 2000: 425 note 336, Abeynayake 2003: 3 and Collett 2009b: 99 note 7. The nun is quick to give a fitting reply to this insinuation. After clarifying that gender is simply irrelevant, once the mind is concentrated, she tells Māra that with such talk he should better go to those who are still caught up in identifications with being a woman or being a man.[n.6] SN 5.2 at SN I 129,23: "what does womanhood matter, [once] the mind is well concentrated? ... one to whom it would occur that 'I am a woman' or '[I am] a man' ... [only] to such a one it is fit for Māra to speak [like this]"; itthibhāvo kiṃ kayirā, cittamhi susamāhite ... yassa nūna siyā evaṃ, itthāhaṃ puriso ti vā ... taṃ māro vattum arahati (Se reads itthībhāvo and itthīhaṃ). SĀ 1199 at T II 326b6: "[once] the mind has entered a [concentrative] attainment, what has a female appearance to do with that? If knowledge has arisen, the unsurpassable state will be reached. [But] if in regard to the perception of being a 'man' or a 'woman', the mind has not reached complete separation, then such a one will speak like Māra. You should go and speak to such a one"; 心入於正受, 女形復何為, 智或若生已, 逮得無上法, 若於男女想, 心不得 俱離, 彼即隨魔說, 汝應往語彼. SĀ2 215 at T II 454a9: "the characteristics of a woman have nothing to do with it, only the mind develops concentrative absorption and contemplates with vision the supreme Dharma. One who has the perception of a 'man' or a 'woman', may say to a woman that she can achieve nothing in the Dharma. [But] if one has no perception of a 'man' or a 'woman', how could such distinctions arise?", 女相無所作, 唯意修禪定, 觀見於上法, 若有男女相, 可說於女人, 於法無所能, 若無男女相, 云何生分別 (where my rendering assumes the last two instances of 相 to be an error for 想, a frequent error in the Āgamas; cf. Anālayo 2011a: 274 note 54). The protagonist of the present verses appears to have been a remarkable nun with outstanding abilities, as according to the Avadānaśataka, Speyer 1909/1970: 22,4 (cf. also the Karmaśataka, Skilling 2001: 146), she had committed the entire code of rules to memory after a single hearing. Horner 1930/1990: 165 comments "that a woman could be represented as making such an utterance is a proof that the old life of Hinduism in which women were regarded merely as childbearers and as commodities was, if not suffering a decline, at least not passing entirely unquestioned".

In direct contrast to the prejudice voiced by Māra, according to a range of Vinayas the Buddha clearly affirmed women's ability to reach any of the four stages of awakening.[n.7] This is reported in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 923a24; in what according to some scholars could be the Haimavata Vinayamātṛka (cf. below note 6 page 450), T 1463 at T XXIV 803b10; in the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, Roth 1970: 13,5; in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, T 1421 at T XXII 185c17; and in the Theravāda Vinaya, Vin II 254,33 (cf. also AN 8.51 at AN IV 276,10). According to a parallel to this account in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, T 1451 at T XXIV 350b15, it was the Buddha's foster mother who made this point, where the circumstance that the Buddha did not reject her assertion of women's abilities gives the impression that here, too, such abilities are at least implicitly affirmed. The same holds true for a Sarvāstivāda parallel, MĀ 116 at T I 605a13. Corroboration for this assertion can be found, for example, in a verse in the Therīgāthā, which records a group of thirty nuns declaring their successful attainment of final liberation.[n.8] Thī 120: "in the last watch of the night they destroyed the mass of ignorance", rattiyā pacchime yāme tamokkhandhaṃ padālayuṃ (Be: tamokhandhaṃ), followed by indicating at Thī 121 that this was accomplished by a group of thirty elder nuns.

The Mahāvacchagotta-sutta and its parallels give even higher numbers, reporting that over five hundred nun disciples of the Buddha had reached full awakening.[n.9] MN 73 at MN I 490,24: "Vaccha, not merely one hundred, not two hundred, not three hundred, not four hundred, not five hundred, but far more nuns who are my disciples dwell by having realized here and now through their own direct knowledge the influx-free deliverance of the mind and deliverance by wisdom, being established in it through the destruction of the influxes", na kho, vaccha, ekaṃ yeva sataṃ na dve satāni na tīṇi satāni na cattāri satāni na pañca satāni, atha kho bhiyyo va yā bhikkhuniyo mama sāvikā āsavānaṃ khayā anāsavaṃ cetovimuttiṃ paññāvimuttiṃ diṭṭheva dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasampajja viharanti. SĀ 964 at T II 246c14: "not only one, two, three nuns, (up to) five hundred, there are many [more] nuns in this Dharma and discipline who have destroyed all influxes (up to) and will not experience a further existence"; 不但一, 二, 三比丘尼, 乃至五百, 有眾多比丘尼, 於此 法律, 盡諸有漏, 乃至不受後有; and SĀ2 198 at T II 446b13: "in the Dharma I teach, there are not [only] one, two, three, (up to) five hundred, but many [more] nuns than that who have attained this state", 我教法中, 比丘尼等得斯 法者, 非一, 二, 三, 乃至五百, 其數眾多, where "this state" refers to the earlier mentioned "attaining deliverance of the mind and deliverance by wisdom", 心得解脫, 慧得解脫; cf. also T 1482 at T XXIV 963b17. In sum there can be little doubt that early Buddhism did consider women to be fully capable of attaining the highest level of liberation.

When it comes to the issue of being a Buddha, however, tradition takes the position that only a male is capable of fulfilling such a role. In the early discourses, the locus classicus for this position is the Bahudhātuka-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya, according to which a woman is incapable of occupying various positions, one of them being that of a Buddha.[n.10] MN 115 at MN III 65,24: "it is impossible, it cannot come to be that a woman should be an arahant who is a Sammāsambuddha", aṭṭhānam etaṃ anavakāso yaṃ itthi arahaṃ assa sammāsambuddho (Be, Ce and Se: itthī). The same position is also taken in AN 1.15 at AN I 28,9, a discourse of which no parallel appears to be known. Such absence of a parallel does not necessarily imply lateness, as lack of a counterpart could also be due to the dynamics of transmission; cf. below page 530ff.

The Bahudhātuka-sutta has several parallels: a discourse in the Madhyama-āgama, a discourse translated individually into Chinese,[n.11] T 776 at T XVII 712b14 to 714a1, entitled "Discourse Spoken by the Buddha on the Fourfold Dharma Instruction", 佛說四品法門經, a title reconstructed by Nanjio 1883/1989: 219 as Buddhabhāṣita-caturvarga-dharmaparyāya-sūtra. a discourse preserved in Tibetan translation,[n.12] D 297 sha 297a2 to 301b2 or Q 963 lu 325b3 to 330b1, entitled khams mang po paʼi mdo, which thus similar to MN 115 and MĀ 181 takes the "many elements" as its title, though in its reference to the Indic original it has these two words in the reverse sequence, D 297 sha 297a2 or Q 963 lu 325b3: rgya gar skad du dhā tu ba hu ta ka sū tra. Skilling 1994a: 772 notes several editions whose title corresponds to the sequence of the Pāli title and suggests that "dhātubahutaka must be a reconstruction". For my work on this discourse I am greatly indebted to Peter Skilling, who kindly allowed me to consult his unpublished translation and edition of the Tibetan discourse. It is a rare gift to be associating with an eminent scholar of such broadminded generosity, especially when it comes to sharing his own unpublished work. a full version in Śamathadeva's compendium of discourse quotations in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, preserved in Tibetan, [n.13] D 4094 ju 28b2 to 33b4 or Q 5595 tu 31b1 to 36b6, which gives the title as khams mang po paʼi mdo, "the Discourse on Many Elements". and a full version as a discourse quotation in the Dharmaskandha of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, preserved in Chinese.[n.14] This discourse quotation comes at the outset of chapter 20 on "many elements" in T 1537 at T XXVI 501b25 to 502c18.

In what follows, I translate the Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Bahudhātuka-sutta, followed by a comparative study of the various versions of this discourse in order to assess the main thrust of the discourse as a whole and tendencies at work in other parts of the discourse. Then I will turn to the absence of a reference to women's inabilities in the Madhyama-āgama discourse.

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Translation

Discourse on Many Elements[n.15] The translated text is MĀ 181 at T I 723a8 to 724c3; for a comparative study of MĀ 181 cf. Anālayo 2011a: 645–654.

1. Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was dwelling at Sāvatthī, staying in Jeta's Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika's Park. At that time the venerable Ānanda, who was seated alone in a tranquil place meditating and reflecting, had this thought in his mind: "All fears arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arise from foolishness, not from wisdom."

Then, in the late afternoon, the venerable Ānanda got up from sitting in meditation, went towards the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, stepped back to stand to one side and said: "Blessed One, [while] I was alone in a tranquil place meditating and reflecting today, I had this thought in my mind: "All fears arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arise from foolishness, not from wisdom."[n.16] MN 115 at MN III 61,9 begins directly with the Buddha broaching this subject, without reporting that a corresponding thought had occurred to Ānanda. The other parallel versions agree with MĀ 181.

2. The Blessed One said: "So it is, Ānanda, so it is, Ānanda. All fears arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. Just as from a heap of reeds and grass a fire might start, which burns down a house or a roofed hall, Ānanda, in the same way all fears arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arise from foolishness, not from wisdom.

"Ānanda, if there were fears in past times, they all arose from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arose from foolishness, not from wisdom. Ānanda, if there will be fears in future times, they will all arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries will arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. Ānanda, if there are fears in present times, they all arise from foolishness, not from wisdom. All misfortunes, disasters and worries arise from foolishness, not from wisdom.[n.17] MN 115 does not take up the fears of the past and the future. The other parallels agree with MĀ 181.

"Hence, Ānanda, due to foolishness there is fear, [due to] wisdom there is no fear; [due to] foolishness there are misfortunes, disasters and worries, [due to] wisdom there are no misfortunes, disasters or worries. Ānanda, whatever fears, misfortunes, disasters and worries there are, they all start off from foolishness,[n.18] MĀ 181 at T I 723b6: 可得, for which Hirakawa 1997: 235 gives as possible equivalents prā-√rabh and sam-ā-√rabh. not from wisdom."[n.19] At this point in MN 115 at MN III 61,25 the Buddha encourages his disciples to train themselves with the thought "we shall become wise ones and inquirers", paṇḍitā bhavissāma vīmaṃsakā (Se only reads paṇḍitā bhavissāma, without vīmaṃsakā), an injunction that underlines the practical import of the subsequent exposition.

3. Then venerable Ānanda, who was [moved] to tears,[n.20] Such a reaction by Ānanda is not mentioned in the other versions. held his hands together [in homage] towards the Buddha and said: "Blessed One, how is a monk foolish and not wise?"[n.21] In MN 115 at MN III 62,2 Ānanda asks directly about how a monk can be reckoned a wise one, without broaching the complementary topic of being reckoned a foolish one. The other parallel versions agree with MĀ 181.

The Blessed One replied: "Ānanda, if a monk does not know the elements, does not know the sense-spheres, does not know causes and conditions, and does not know what is possible and what is impossible. Ānanda, a monk like this is foolish and not wise."[n.22] The discourse quotation in Śamathadeva's compendium and the Dharmaskandha add to this fourfold listing the aggregates as a fifth item, which D 4094 ju 29b1 or Q 5595 tu 32b1 lists as its first, whereas in T 1537 at T XXVI 501c11 they occur in the third place; cf. table 14. The Dharmaskandha also gives an exposition of this topic by listing the five aggregates, T 1537 at T XXVI 502a13, an exposition without counterpart in the discourse quotation in Śamathadeva's compendium.

The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, a monk like this is [indeed] foolish and not wise. Blessed One, how is a monk wise and not foolish?"

The Blessed One replied: "Ānanda, if a monk knows the elements, knows the sense-spheres, knows causes and conditions, and knows what is possible and what is impossible. Ānanda, a monk like this is wise and not foolish."

4. The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, a monk like this is [indeed] wise and not foolish. Blessed One, how does a monk know the elements?"

The Blessed One replied:[n.23] Several of the elements listed here are not found in MN 115; cf. table 15. "Ānanda, suppose a monk sees eighteen elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the eye element, the form element and the eye-consciousness element; the ear element, the sound element and the ear-consciousness element; the nose element, the odour element and the nose-consciousness element; the tongue element, the taste element and the tongue-consciousness element; the body element, the tactile element and the body-consciousness element; the mind element, the mind-object element and the mind-consciousness element; Ānanda, he sees these eighteen elements and knows them as they really are.[n.24] At this point in MN 115, and after each of the sets of elements listed subsequently, Ānanda asks the Buddha if there could be another way how a monk can be reckoned as skilled in the elements, e.g., MN III 62,19: siyā pana, bhante, añño pi pariyāyo yathā dhātukusalo bhikkhū ti alaṃ vacanāya. Thus in MN 115 the different sets of elements are alternative options, whereas MĀ 181 gives the impression as if all sets of elements need to be known.

5-7. "Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees six elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the earth element, the water element, the fire element, the wind element, the space element and the consciousness element. Ānanda, he sees these six elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees six elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element of sensual desire, the element of ill will, the element of harming, the element of dispassion, the element of absence of ill will and the element of absence of harming. Ānanda, he sees these six elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees six elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element of pleasure, the element of pain, the element of [mental] joy, the element of [mental] sadness, the element of equanimity and the element of ignorance. Ānanda, he sees these six elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees four elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element of feeling, the element of perception, the element of volitional formations and the element of consciousness.[n.25] This set of four elements is not found in MN 115, though it occurs in the other versions. Ānanda, he sees these four elements and knows them as they really are.

8. "Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the sense-sphere element, the [fine-]material element and the immaterial element. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the material element, the immaterial element and the element of cessation. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.[n.26] The present triad of elements (material / immaterial / cessation) and the next triad (past / future / present) are absent from MN 115 and T 776.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element of the past, the element of the future and the element of the present. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the superior element, the inferior element and the middling element. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.[n.27] The present triad of elements (superior / inferior / middle) and the next two triads (wholesome / unwholesome / undetermined and trainee / beyond training / neither) are absent from MN 115, but occur in the other versions.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the wholesome element, the unwholesome element and the undetermined element. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees three elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element of the trainee (sekha), the element of the one beyond training and the element of the one who is not a trainee and not beyond training. Ānanda, he sees these three elements and knows them as they really are.

9. "Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees two elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the element with influxes and the element without influxes. Ānanda, he sees these two elements and knows them as they really are.[n.28] The present pair of elements (with influxes / without influxes) is absent from MN 115, but occurs in the other versions.

"Again, Ānanda, [a monk] sees two elements and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the conditioned element and the unconditioned element. Ānanda, he sees these two elements and knows them as they really are.

"Ānanda, [a monk] sees these sixty-two elements and knows them as they really are. Ānanda, like this a monk knows the elements.[n.29] A final count of all elements is not found in any of the parallels, so that MĀ 181 is the only version that specifies the overall number of elements. A count of sixty-two elements is associated with the present discourse in other sources, however, e.g., in the *Mahāvibhāṣā, T 1545 at T XXVII 367c4: 多界 經中說界差別有六十二 (cf. also Buddhavarman's Vibhāṣā translation, T 1546 at T XXVIII 279b24); or in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, Abh-k 1.28, Pradhan 1967: 18,7: bahudhātuke 'pi dvāṣaṣṭirdhātavo deśitāḥ (with its Chinese counterparts in T 1558 at T XXIX 6c2: 多界經說界差別有六十二, and in T 1559 at T XXIX 166c23: 於多界經中, 佛說有六十二界); cf. also T 1552 at T XXVIII 874a6: 六十二界, 如多界經說及餘契經, and T 1828 at T XLII 657b17: 六十二界, 如多界經.

10. The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, like this a monk [indeed] knows the elements. Blessed One, how does a monk know the sense-spheres?"

The Blessed One replied: "Ānanda, suppose a monk sees the twelve sense-spheres and knows them as they really are, [namely]: the eye sense-sphere and the form sense-sphere; the ear sense-sphere and the sound sense-sphere; the nose sensesphere and the odour sense-sphere; the tongue sense-sphere and the taste sense-sphere; the body sense-sphere and the tactile sense-sphere; and the mind sense-sphere and the mindobject sense-sphere. Ānanda, he sees these twelve sense-spheres and knows them as they really are. Ānanda, like this a monk knows the sense-spheres."

11. The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, like this a monk [indeed] knows the sense-spheres. How does a monk know causes and conditions?"

The Blessed One replied: "Ānanda, suppose a monk sees causes and conditions as well as what has arisen through causes and conditions and knows it as its really is, [namely]: "Dependent on this, that exists; [if] this does not exist, that does not exist; [if] this arises, that arises; [if] this ceases, that ceases. That is to say, conditioned by ignorance are formations ... (up to) ... conditioned by birth are old age and death. If ignorance ceases formation cease ... (up to) ... [if] birth ceases old age and death cease. Ānanda, like this a monk knows causes and conditions."

12-18. The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, like this a monk [indeed] knows causes and conditions. How does a monk know what is possible and what is impossible?"

The Blessed One replied: "Ānanda, suppose a monk sees what is possible as possible and knows it as its really is; and he sees what is impossible as impossible and knows it as it really is.[n.30] The listings of impossibilities show considerable variations in the different versions; cf. table 16.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that there could be two wheelturning kings ruling in the world. [However], it is certainly possible that there could be one wheel-turning king ruling in the world.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that there could be two Tathāgatas in the world. [However], it is certainly possible that there could be one Tathāgata in the world.

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth intentionally to kill his father or mother, kill an arahant, cause a schism in the community or, out of an evil mental disposition towards the Buddha, cause the Tathāgata's blood to flow. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling intentionally to kill his father or mother, kill an arahant, cause a schism in the community or, out of an evil mental disposition towards the Buddha, cause the Tathāgata's blood to flow.[n.31] The contrast here is between the 見諦人 and the 凡夫人, counterparts to the diṭṭhisampanna puggala and the puthujjana mentioned in the corresponding section in MN 115 at MN III 64,29. The former of these two is at least a stream-enterer, so that the impossibilities listed here contrast a member of the community of noble ones to a worldling.

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth intentionally to violate the moral precepts, reject the moral precepts and stop [practising] the path. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling intentionally to violate the moral precepts, reject the moral precepts and stop [practising] the path.[n.32] The present and the subsequent impossibilities, up to the impossibility that a person endowed with view could be reborn into an eighth existence, have as their counterpart in MN 115 at MN III 65,11 a single impossibility, according to which a person endowed with view will not designate another teacher [as his teacher], aññaṃ sattāraṃ uddiseyya; cf. table 17.

"It is [also] not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth to reject and abandon his own [dispensation] and search for someone to be honoured among outsiders, search for a field of merit [among outsiders]. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to reject and abandon his own [dispensation] and search for someone to be honoured among outsiders, search for a field of merit [among outsiders].

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth to follow other recluses and brahmins and declare: 'Honourable ones, you see what can be seen and know what can be known'. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to follow other recluses and brahmins and declare: 'Honourable ones, you see what can be seen and know what can be known'.

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth to have faith in divination and inquire about auspicious and inauspicious [omens]. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to have faith in divination and inquire about auspicious and inauspicious [omens].

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth to inquire about what is related to auspicious and inauspicious signs from other recluses or brahmin diviners in order to see if there is some suffering or trouble [to be expected in the future], seeing it as being the truth. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to inquire about what is related to auspicious and inauspicious signs from other recluses or brahmin diviners in order to see if there is some suffering or trouble [to be expected in the future], seeing it as being the truth.

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth, when extreme pains arise, tremendous pains that are not [at all] agreeable, not [at all] pleasurable, not [at all] longed for, unthinkable, that lead up to the ending of life, to reject and abandon his own [dispensation] and to follow outsiders and search [for help] from some recluse or brahmin who bears in mind a spell of one line, a spell of two lines, three lines, four lines, many lines, [even] a spell of a hundred thousand lines, [with the thought]: 'this will cause me to be freed from dukkha', searching in this way for dukkha, the arising of dukkha, the path [leading to the cessation of] dukkha, and the cessation of dukkha.[n.33] Notably the sequence of enumeration here departs from the standard presentation of the four truths; cf. also Anālayo 2011c. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to reject and abandon his own [dispensation] and to follow outsiders and search [for help] from some recluse or brahmin who bears in mind a spell of one line, a spell of two lines, three lines, four lines, many lines, [even] a spell of a hundred-thousand lines, [with the thought]: 'this will cause me to be freed from dukkha', searching in this way for dukkha, the arising of dukkha, the path [leading to the cessation of] dukkha, and the cessation of dukkha.

"Ānanda, it is not possible for a person [endowed] with a vision of the truth to experience an eighth existence. [However], it is certainly possible for an ordinary worldling to experience an eighth existence.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that, on account of evil conduct by body, speech and mind one should, when the body breaks up at death, proceed towards a good destination and be born in a heavenly world. [However], it is certainly possible that, on account of evil conduct by body, speech and mind one should, when the body breaks up at death, proceed towards a bad destination and be born in a hellish world.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that, on account of pure conduct by body, speech and mind one should, when the body breaks up at death, proceed towards a bad destination and be born in a hellish world. [However], it is certainly possible that on account of pure conduct by body, speech and mind one should, when the body breaks up at death, proceed towards a good destination and be born in a heavenly world.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that evil conduct by body, speech and mind should have as its result the experience of pleasure. [However], it is certainly possible that evil conduct by body, speech and mind should have as its result the experience of pain.

"Ānanda, it is not possible that pure conduct by body, speech and mind should have as its result the experience of pain. [However], it is certainly possible that pure conduct by body, speech and mind should have as its result the experience of pleasure.

"Ānanda, it is not possible to settle the mind fully in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are not overcome. [However], it is certainly possible to settle the mind fully in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are overcome.[n.34] The present and the following impossibilities are without a counterpart in MN 115, though they have counterparts in the other versions.

"Ānanda, it is not possible to aim at developing the seven factors of awakening if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are not overcome and if the mind is not fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness. [However], it is certainly possible to develop the seven factors of awakening if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are overcome and if the mind is fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness.

"Ānanda, it is not possible to aim at attaining supreme, right and complete awakening if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are not overcome, if the mind is not fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness and if the seven factors of awakening are not developed. [However], it is certainly possible to attain supreme, right and complete awakening if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are overcome, if the mind is fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness and if the seven factors of awakening are developed.

"Ānanda, it is not possible to eradicate and make an end of dukkha if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are not overcome, if the mind is not fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness, if the seven factors of awakening are not developed and if supreme, right and complete awakening is not attained. [However], it is certainly possible to eradicate and make an end of dukkha if the five hindrances that defile the mind and weaken wisdom are overcome, if the mind is fully settled in the four[-fold] establishing of mindfulness, if the seven factors of awakening are developed and if supreme, right and complete awakening is attained. Ānanda, like this a monk knows what is possible and what is impossible."

19. The venerable Ānanda said: "Blessed One, like this a monk [indeed] knows what is possible and what is impossible." Then the venerable Ānanda held his hands together [in homage] towards the Buddha and said: "Blessed One, what is the name of this discourse, how should we respectfully bear it in mind?"

The Blessed One said: "Ānanda, you should memorize this [discourse] as the Many Elements, the Dharma Element, the Element of the Deathless, the Many Drums, the Dharma Drum, the Drum of the Deathless, the Mirror of the Dharma, the Four Chapters. For this reason, call this discourse by the name 'Many Elements'."[n.35] Four of these titles, the "Many Elements", the "Drum of the Deathless", the "Mirror of the Dharma", and the "Four Chapters" occur also in nearly all of the other versions; cf. MN 115 at MN III 67,29: bahudhātuko ... catuparivaṭṭo ... dhammādāso ... amatadundubhi; T 776 at T XVII 713c27: 四品法門 ... 法鏡 ... 甘露鼓 ... 多界; D 297 sha 301a7 or Q 963 lu 330a8: leʼu bzhi pa ... chos kyi me long ... bdud rtsiʼi rnga bo che (thereby qualifying the drum of the deathless as "great") ... khams mang po; T 1537 at T XXVI 502c17: 四轉 ... 大法鏡 (qualifying the mirror of the Dharma as "great") ... 甘露鼓 ... 多界; D 4094 ju 33b3 or Q 5595 tu 36b5: leʼu bzhi pa ... chos kyi me long ... bdud rtsi lnga (speaking of a "five[-fold] deathless" instead of the "drum of the deathless") ... khams mang po. MN 115 at MN III 67,30 also mentions the "Unsurpassable Victory in Battle", anuttaro saṅgāmavijayo, a title not found in the other versions. The same title recurs in a listing of five alternative titles for the Brahmajāla-sutta, DN 1 at DN I 46,25, where it is also absent from the Chinese and Tibetan counterparts; cf. DĀ 21 at T I 94a12, T 21 at T I 270c20 and Weller 1934: 64,33.

The Buddha spoke like this. The venerable Ānanda and the monks, having listened to what the Buddha said, were delighted and received it respectfully.

---

Study

In what follows, I survey the more significant variations between the different versions of the present discourse in order to provide a background to my subsequent discussion of the inabilities of women.

One such variation occurs in regard to the basic four-fold presentation of what is required in order to be reckoned wise. The discourse quotations in the Dharmaskandha and in Śamathadeva's compendium differ from the other versions in as much as they mention the aggregates as a fifth topic (see table 14).

While Śamathadeva's compendium has the aggregates as the first item in its listing, followed by the four topics mentioned in all versions,[n.36] D 4094 ju 29b1 or Q 5595 tu 32b1: phung po. the Dharmaskandha instead lists the aggregates as its respective third.[n.37] T 1537 at T XXVI 501c11: 蘊. The discourse quotation in Śamathadeva's compendium does not give an exposition to this topic, but only mentions it in its initial listing. The Dharmaskandha, however, does provide such an exposition.[n.38] T 1537 at T XXVI 502a13: "A wise one who knows and sees the five aggregates as they really are is skilled in the aggregates. That is to say, he knows and sees the aggregate of form, the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of perception, the aggregate of volitional formations and the aggregate of consciousness as they really are. This is reckoned a wise one who is skilled in the aggregates", 智者於五蘊如實知見, 是蘊善巧, 謂如實知見色蘊, 受蘊, 想蘊, 行蘊, 識蘊, 是名智者於蘊善巧.

Table 14: Main Topics of the Exposition

Discourse versions	Śamathadeva	Dharmaskandha
1) elements	1) aggregates	1) elements
2) sense-spheres	2) elements	2) sense-spheres
3) dependent arising	3) sense-spheres	3) aggregates
4) impossibilities	4) dependent arising	4) dependent arising
	5) impossibilities	5) impossibilities

These variations, together with the absence of any reference to the aggregates in the discourse versions, make it quite probable that this topic is a later addition. This impression is further confirmed by the circumstance that all versions speak of "four chapters" or "four turnings" as one of the possible titles of the discourse.[n.39] MN 115 at MN III 67,29: catuparivaṭṭa; T 776 at T XVII 713c27: 四品法門; D 297 sha 301a7 or Q 963 lu 330a8: leʼu bzhi pa; T 1537 at T XXVI 502c17: 四轉; D 4094 ju 33b3 or Q 5595 tu 36b5: leʼu bzhi pa. Thus it seems safe to conclude that the original exposition involved only four topics – the elements, the sensespheres, dependent arising and the impossibilities – and did not include a reference to the aggregates or even an exposition of them as a fifth topic.

Substantial variations can also be found in relation to the exposition of the first of these four topics, the elements (see table 15).

The briefest treatment of this topic occurs in the Pāli discourse, which lists forty-one elements. These forty-one elements form the common core of the exposition in all versions. The individual translation additionally covers a set of four elements, three sets of three elements and one set of two elements, so that its listing presents fifty-six elements. These fifty-six elements recur in the other Chinese and Tibetan versions, which have another two additional sets of three elements, so that the listing in these count sixty-two elements, see below table 15, where I detail only the additional sets in full, to facilitate comparison.

Table 15: Listing of Elements 41 elements in the Pāli discourse, MN 115:

• 18 elements: the senses, their objects and the corresponding types of consciousness
• 6 elements: earth, water, fire, wind, space and consciousness
• 6 elements: pleasure, pain, joy, sadness, equanimity and ignorance
• 6 elements: sensual desire, renunciation, ill will, absence of ill will, cruelty and absence of cruelty
• 3 elements: sensual sphere, [fine-]material sphere and immaterial sphere
• 2 elements: conditioned and unconditioned

56 elements in the individual translation, T 776:

• 18 elements
• 6 elements
• 6 elements
• 6 elements
• 4 elements: feeling, perception, volitional formations and consciousness
• 3 elements
• 3 elements: inferior, middle and superior
• 3 elements: wholesome, unwholesome and undetermined
• 3 elements: trainee, beyond training and neither
• 2 elements: with influxes and without influxes
• 2 elements

62 elements in the other versions:

• 18 elements
• 6 elements
• 6 elements
• 6 elements
• 4 elements
• 3 elements
• 3 elements: material, immaterial and cessation
• 3 elements: past, future and present
• 3 elements
• 3 elements
• 3 elements
• 2 elements
• 2 elements

In principle, such differences could have been caused by a loss of text or by an addition. A loss of text due to intentional omission seems improbable, as the elements not listed in the Pāli version are found in other Pāli discourses.[n.40] The four elements occur in an analysis of deeper levels of concentration into its constituent elements under the heading of the four mental aggregates given in MN 64 at MN I 436,21+29. The additional element triplets recur in DN 33 at DN III 215,20+22, DN III 216,16, DN III 217,24 and DN III 218,1, which has the triplet material, immaterial and cessation as its entry 3:14; what is inferior, middle and superior as its entry 3.15; past, future and present as its entry 3.24; wholesome, unwholesome and indeterminate formations as its entry 3.35; and the trainee, the one beyond training and the one who is neither as its entry 3.36. The distinction between what is with influxes and what is without the influxes is applied in DN 28 at DN III 112,7 to supernormal powers; in MN 117 at MN III 72,6 to the factors of the noble eightfold path; in AN 2.7 at AN I 81,1 to happiness; and in AN 10.133 at AN V 275,20 to the ten courses of action. Hence there would have been no real reason for those who transmitted the Bahudhātuka-sutta to eliminate these elements deliberately from the exposition. The Pāli discourse also does not show any sign of accidental loss. In fact, this seems less probable since this would require two instances or stages of accident loss, causing a loss of six elements in the case of the individual translation and a loss of twenty-one elements during the transmission of the Pāli discourse.

This makes it more probable that the exposition on elements has gone through a gradual expansion instead, with the individual translation testifying to an intermediate stage between the exposition on forty-one elements, found in all versions, and the list of sixty-two elements. Such a gradual expansion would be a fairly natural occurrence during oral transmission, where a listing of elements could easily attract other textual items related to the same topic.

The assumption of a textual expansion would also be in line with the above discussed case of five against four chief topics, where the aggregates can safely be considered an instance of later addition and thus testify that a tendency towards expansion is at work elsewhere in the present text.

The presentation of the next two topics – the sense-spheres and dependent arising – is similar in the parallel versions. When it comes to the last topic of impossibilities, however, considerable variations manifest again (see table 16).

The parallel versions concur that the simultaneous manifestation of two wheel-turning kings or two Tathāgatas is impossible.[n.41] The discourse quotations in the Dharmaskandha and in Śamathadeva's compendium agree with MĀ 181 in mentioning the two wheel-turning kings first, T 1537 at T XXVI 502b12 and D 4094 ju 32a1 or Q 5595 tu 35a2. The other versions mention them in second place, MN 115 at MN III 65,20, T 776 at T XVII 713b18 and D 297 sha 300a7 or Q 963 lu 329a5. They similarly agree that wholesome conduct cannot have bad results or lead to rebirth in hell, just as it is impossible that unwholesome conduct could have pleasant results or lead to rebirth in heaven.

The parallel versions also affirm unanimously that a streamenterer is incapable of committing any of the five heinous crimes, which are to kill one's mother, to kill one's father, to kill an arahant, to create a schism and to hurt a Buddha intentionally so as to cause his blood to flow.[n.42] While in the listing in MN 115 at MN III 65,3, shedding the blood of a Tathāgata precedes schism, the other versions agree with MĀ 181 at T I 724a3 in adopting the opposite sequence; cf. T 776 at T XVII 713b27, D 297 sha 300b3 or Q 963 lu 329a8, T 1537 at T XXVI 502b21 and D 4094 ju 32a6 or Q 5595 tu 35a8. On this type of variation cf. also Silk 2007b: 254f.

A minor difference in the mode of presentation is that the Pāli version lists these five heinous crimes as five impossibilities, whereas the other versions present them together as a single impossibility.

Table 16: Themes in the Exposition on Impossibilities

Mentioned in all versions:

• simultaneous arising of two wheel-turning kings or Tathāgatas
• bad conduct leads to good results/rebirth
• good conduct leads to bad results/rebirth
• a stream-enterer commits five heinous crimes

Mentioned in all versions, but treated differently:

• further inabilities of a stream-enterer (see also table 17)

Mentioned only in some versions:

• awakening reached without overcoming the hindrances, etc. (not in MN 115)
• inabilities of women (not in MĀ 181, see also table 18)

Another point made in all versions is that stream-enterers will not have faith in outsiders or take an outsider as their teacher. The versions differ, however, as they treat this theme in different ways and also mention various other inabilities of a stream-enterer, which they present alternatively as a single impossibility, as three, as four or as seven impossibilities (see table 17).

These more detailed presentations cover various aspects of a stream-enterer's firm confidence in his teacher, indicating that a stream-enterer is unable to give up the precepts and unable to consider outsiders to be a worthy field of merit or to be awakened. Nor would a stream-enterer believe in auspicious signs. Most versions indicate that a stream-enterer will not be reborn into an eighth existence.

Some versions moreover mention a stream-enterer's inability to kill a living being intentionally. The Pāli version stands alone in also indicating that a stream-enterer will not consider any formation as permanent, satisfying or a self.

Table 17: Further Inabilities of a Stream-enterer 1 impossibility covering 2 aspects (individual translation):

• after violating monastic precepts slanders own teacher and takes outsider as teacher, seeks liberation from outside teacher

1 impossibility covering 6 aspects (Śamathadeva's compendium):

• intentionally kills living beings, gives up precepts, considers outsiders worthy, thinks outsiders are awakened, has faith in auspicious signs, experiences eighth existence

1 impossibility covering 7 aspects (Tibetan discourse):

• intentionally kills living beings, gives up precepts, considers outsiders worthy, takes outsiders as teacher, has faith in auspicious signs, thinks outsiders know truth, experiences eighth existence

3 impossibilities covering 6 aspects (Dharmaskandha):

• intentionally kills living beings
• gives up precepts
• seeks teacher or field of merit among outsiders, considers outsiders worthy, practices divination through auspicious signs, experiences eighth existence

4 impossibilities covering 4 aspects (MN 115):

• regards formations as permanent
• regards formations as satisfying
• regards formations as self
• follows another teacher[n.43] The first three constitute the first to third impossibilities in MN 115 at MN III 64,16, while the impossibility of following another teacher comes as the ninth impossibility at MN III 65,10.

7 impossibilities covering 7 aspects (MĀ 181):

• gives up precepts
• considers outsiders as perfected and a field of merit
• thinks outsiders know truth
• has faith in auspicious signs
• inquires about auspicious signs from outsiders
• searches way out of dukkha from outsiders
• experiences eighth existence

These variations, found between the different versions in regard to types of impossibilities and in regard to the mode of presenting these, make it quite probable that a gradual expansion has taken place. Although an accidental loss of text cannot be totally excluded, such an assumption seems highly improbable, since a whole series of accidents would be required in order to arrive at the degree of diversity found between the parallel versions. Moreover, none of the items missing in some versions seems to be of such an unusual nature that one would expect an intentional omission to be responsible for its disappearance from some other versions.

The same pattern becomes even more evident with other impossibilities that are mentioned only in some versions, which cover the requirements for reaching awakening and the inabilities of women (see above table 16). In the case of the first of these two themes – the requirements for reaching awakening – the Pāli discourse is the only version that does not broach this theme.

According to the other versions, the hindrances need to be overcome, mindfulness needs to be established and the awakening factors need to be developed. Each of these builds on the preceding and their conjoint undertaking is required for reaching awakening (and thereby making an end of dukkha).

There would have been little reason for the reciters of the Pāli version to omit such a presentation. Given that the Pāli discourse shows no signs of accidental loss, it seems the most natural explanation in this case would be that this stipulation regarding the requirements for reaching awakening is a case of addition in the other versions.

In the case of the second theme – the inabilities of women – the Madhyama-āgama discourse is the only version that does not mention these. The other versions present this theme with some variations.

In regard to the differences and variations observed so far in the treatment of impossibilities, it is noteworthy that according to the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-(upadeśa-)śāstra (大智度論) the listing of impossibilities originally delivered by the Buddha in the present discourse was subsequently expanded.[n.44] T 1509 at T XXV 237a28 explains that the "possibilities and impossibilities like these [mentioned before] were declared by the Buddha himself in the Discourse on Many Elements. Based on what the Buddha had said, the treatise masters further expanded by declaring [more] possibilities and impossibilities", 如是等, 是處不是處,多性經中佛口自說, 諸論議師輩, 依是佛語, 更 廣說是處不是處; cf. also Lamotte 1944/1970: 1525. As an example for this tendency, the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-(upadeśa-)śāstra mentions the impossibility that a noble one – i.e., one who is at least a stream-enterer – could take an outsider as his or her teacher.[n.45] T 1509 at T XXV 237b1 refers to the impossibility "that noble ones seek out a heterodox teacher", 若諸賢聖求外道師.

Given that this impossibility is found in all versions of the Bahudhātuka-sutta, the observation made in the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-(upadeśa-)śāstra appears to reflect a tendency at work already during the early stages in the formation of the different versions of the present discourse.[n.46] Lamotte 1944/1970: 1525 note 1 suggests that this would be intending the authors of the Abhidharma in particular, "le Traité a sans doute en vue les auteurs d'Abhidharma qui on considérablement augmenté la liste des possibilités et impossibilités dressée par le Buddha". This is certainly the case, but the same tendency towards expanding the theme of impossibilities seems to make itself felt already in the Bahudhātuka-sutta and its discourse parallels, perhaps corresponding to a tendency of early stages of Abhidharma thought manifesting itself in the discourses, on which cf. in more detail below page 289ff.

Keeping in mind this tendency towards expansion, explicitly noted in the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-(upadeśa-)śāstra and found at work repeatedly throughout the different versions of the Bahudhātuka-sutta studied so far, provides the required background for examining the theme of women's inabilities.

While the Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Bahudhātuka-sutta does not take up the theme of what is impossible for women at all, the other versions of this discourse present the various inabilities of women as a single impossibility, as two or as five impossibilities (see table 18).

In regard to content, a difference is that according to some versions a woman cannot be one of the four heavenly kings, while others instead indicate that she cannot be Māra.

Another difference that is of considerable significance for the main topic of my present investigation is that, except for the Pāli version, the other versions agree in indicating that a woman cannot be a Paccekabuddha.

Table 18: Impossibilities for Women

1 impossibility covering 6 aspects (individual translation):

• wheel-turning king, heavenly king, Sakka, Brahmā, Paccekabuddha and Buddha

1 impossibility covering 6 aspects (Tibetan discourse):

• wheel-turning king, Sakka, Brahmā, Māra, Paccekabuddha and Buddha

1 impossibility covering 6 aspects (Dharmaskandha):

• wheel-turning king, Sakka, Māra, Brahmā, Paccekabuddha and Buddha

2 impossibilities covering 6 aspects (Śamathadeva):

• wheel-turning king
• heavenly king, Sakka, Brahmā, Paccekabuddha and Buddha

5 impossibilities (MN 115):

• Buddha
• wheel-turning king
• Sakka
• Māra
• Brahmā

When evaluating the implications of these impossibilities, it needs to be kept in mind that in a patriarchal society like ancient India the idea of a female wheel-turning king would have been out of the question. It would have been similarly out of the question for ancient Indians to conceive that a female Sakka, a female heavenly king or a female Brahmā could be reigning in their respective heavenly worlds. [n.47] Ps IV 123,11 explains that in the present context the reference is to Mahābrahmā, i.e., a Brahmā who reigns in the Brahmā world; in fact the individual translation, T 776 at T XVII 713b22, speaks explicitly of the Heavenly King Mahābrahmā in this context, 大梵天王, and the Dharmaskandha, T 1537 at T XXVI 502b17, speaks of King Brahmā, 梵王. The Pāli commentary explains that the suggestion in MN 115 at MN III 66,8 that a man can become a Brahmā should not be taken literally, as Brahmās are genderless, but should be understood only in the sense that the outer appearance of a Brahmā resembles a man more than a woman. The same reasoning would also apply to Māra, who according to the Pāli commentarial tradition occupied a position similar to a king or a prince in the highest heaven of the sense-sphere realm.[n.48] According to Ps I 34,2, Māra lives in the paranimmittavasavattidevaloka governing his own following like a rebel prince in the border region of a kingdom, attano parisāya issariyaṃ pavattento rajjapaccante dāmarikarājaputto viya vasati; a similar indication is also made in the Yogācārabhūmi, Bhattacharya 1957: 75,7.

The point behind the above mentioned impossibilities is that a woman cannot fulfil these functions in the present. Though she could become any of these in a future birth, as long as she is a female she cannot perform the function of any of these rulers since to assume these leadership positions would, from the perspective of ancient Indian patriarchal society, require being a male.[n.49] Barnes 1987: 114 comments on the impossibilities for women that "this theory excluded women from leadership". As Sharma 1978: 74 points out, at least in the case of Māra this would not have been an issue, as given the negative role Māra plays in Buddhist texts, "the denial of Marahood can hardly be an embarrassment".

This would also explain why Buddhist tradition holds that someone who is about to become a Buddha will not take birth as a woman. To do so, at least in a patriarchal society like ancient India, would make it more difficult to execute the role of being a Buddha successfully, as people would have less respect for a female teacher.

A parallel reasoning seems to underlie the circumstance that Buddhas are born in families from the warrior or brahmin class (varṇa).[n.50] This can be seen in the listing of former Buddhas given in DN 14 at DN II 2,28, DĀ 1 at T I 2a16, T 2 at T I 150b1, T 4 at T I 159b21, EĀ 48.4 at T II 790b14 and a Sanskrit fragment counterpart, S 360 folio 115 verso, Fukita 2003: 4. The Mahāvastu, Senart 1890: 1,3, points out that "bodhisattvas are born in two types of families, warrior families or brahmin families", dvīhi kulehi bodhisatvā jāyanti, kṣatriyakule vā brāhmaṇakule vā. Rahula 1978: 186 sums up: "if the Buddha is to hail from a backward family, nobody would care for what he preaches and hence an Enlightened One is always to be born in the highest caste of the day". Wawrytko 1994: 286 comments that "prevailing social conditions prompted the Buddha to choose a high caste for his incarnation ... presumably the same practical considerations would have militated against an incarnation in the female gender within ancient Indian society". This specification appears to be based on the same logic, since for a Buddha to be born in a low class would make it unnecessarily difficult to be sufficiently respected as a teacher.[n.51] According to the Saṅghabhedavastu, Gnoli 1977: 36,13, the future Buddha chose to be reborn in a warrior family since the warriors were more respected than brahmins, and his decision on where to be born was taken in order to avoid an objectionable type of birth, mā me syur atonidānaṃ pare vakktāraḥ 'bodhisattvena garhaṇīyāyāṃ jātau pratisandhir gṛhīta' iti. A related position can be found in the Jain tradition, as according to the Jinacaritra (17), Jacobi 1879/1966: 38,9, future arahants or wheel-turning kings will avoid arising in a low womb or even in a brahmin womb. Thus these specifications on the gender or the social class of a Buddha are an adaptation to ancient Indian society. They do not imply that gender or social class have a bearing on spiritual ability.[n.52] The present inability does also not imply, as assumed by An 2002: 11, that women are considered incapable of reaching liberation and be arahants, it only concerns the question of being a Buddha.

Here it also needs to be taken into account that the presentation in the Bahudhātuka-sutta and its parallels still stems from a period in the development of Buddhist thought when the idea of aspiring to Buddhahood had not yet become a general option. As pointed out by Kajiyama (1982: 64), "the dictum that a woman cannot become a Buddha ... did not have a target to which it could have been directed", since at that time "no one, neither man nor woman, aspired to Buddhahood."[n.53] Romberg 2002: 164 notes that once "the aim was no longer to become an Arhat, but to become Buddha ... this shift made, in fact, the situation for women worse, because a doctrinal foundation was laid for the necessity of changing the sex before being able to become enlightened". In fact the Bodhisattvabhūmi explains that a woman will not realize the awakening of a Buddha because already an advanced bodhisattva has left behind womanhood for good and will not be reborn again as a female, Wogihara 1930: 94,3: na ca strī anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyate. tat kasya hetoḥ? tathā hi bodhisattvaḥ prathamasyaiva kalpāsaṃkhyeyasyātyayāt strībhāvaṃ vijahāti bodhimaṇḍaniṣadanam upādāya na punar jātu strī bhavati; cf. also Paul 1979/ 1985: 212 note 7. Harrison 1987: 78 concludes that "women ... are generally represented in such an unfavourable light as to vitiate any notion of the Mahāyāna as a movement for sexual equality. Compared with the situation in the Pāli Canon, in which women are at least as capable as men of attaining the highest goal, arhatship, the position of women in Mahāyāna has hardly changed for the better".

In sum, then, the inability of a woman to assume the position of a ruler on earth, a ruler in various heavenly realms or a ruler in the field of Dharma seem to reflect leadership conceptions in ancient India.

From this perspective, one might even venture to query how far the inabilities of women stipulated in the Bahudhātuka-sutta would still be applicable in a society where female leadership is a common feature. Just as in a society that does not have a class hierarchy with brahmins and warriors at its apex a Buddha would not need to stem from these classes (varṇa), so a Buddha's gender might not need to be male in a society where gender equality is a generally accepted fact.[n.54] A problem with this suggestion would be one of the thirty-two marks with which according to tradition the Buddha was endowed, namely the concealed nature of his genitals; cf. e.g., MN 91 at MN II 136,17: kosohitavatthaguyho, referred to in its parallels MĀ 161 at T I 686b16 and T 76 at T I 883c26 as 陰 馬藏; on which cf. in more detail Anālayo 2011b: 46. Hae-ju 1999: 131 comments that the idea of women's inability to become a Buddha "may have stemmed from the idea of the Buddha's unique sexual mark. Even though his sexual organ is concealed, the mark is characterized as male"; cf. also Kajiyama 1982: 65 and Cheng 2007: 72. The standard description of the significance of these thirty-two marks, e.g., MN 91 at MN II 134,16 and its parallels MĀ 161 at T I 685a23 and T 76 at T I 883c2, states that one who has these will definitely become either a wheel-turning king or a Buddha. In several discourses, brahmins investigate the Buddha's possession of the thirty-two marks and, once they find out that he possesses all of them and have been told by him that he claims to be a Buddha, they come to the conclusion that his claim must be true. Thus possession of the thirty-two marks serves to certify a claim to Buddhahood in the eyes of contemporary brahmins. However, the standard descriptions of the significance of these marks neither explicitly state nor necessarily imply that to become a wheel-turning king or a Buddha one must invariably be endowed with these marks (though this may well be the way later tradition interprets these passages). It only states the future prospect of one who has them. Thus, what this dictum implies for one who does not have all thirty-two marks would be that such a person's claim to be a Buddha would fail to arouse confidence in brahmins who believe in the significance of these marks. In the discourses, the situation of someone claiming to be a Buddha without possessing all thirty-two marks does not arise, as whenever the possession of these marks is under scrutiny, the object of such investigations is invariably Gotama Buddha. Nevertheless, a significant indication can be found in the Mahāpadāna-sutta, which makes a point of not including the possession of the thirty-two marks among what is the rule, dhammatā, for all Buddhas. Whereas the Mahāpadāna-sutta consistently introduces various qualities of the infant bodhisattva Vipassī as dhammatā esā, and thus specifies their possession as something that is invariably the case for any Buddha-to-be, when the discourse turns to his thirty-two marks, DN 14 at DN II 16,1, the phrase dhammatā esā is no longer used. The same is the case for its Dīrghaāgama parallel, where the recurrent reference to an "unchanging principle for all Buddhas", 諸佛常法, is no longer used when the description turns to the thirty-two marks, DĀ 1 at T I 4c20. Not all parallel versions agree in this respect, as judging from fragment 143.2 in Fukita 2003: 71 the Sanskrit parallel did use the expression dharmatā at the outset of its description of bodhisattva Vipaśyī's possession of the thirty-two marks; while another parallel, T 2 at T I 152b13, does not use such a specification even in its description of his other qualities. In sum, at least from the perspective of the Mahāpadāna-sutta and its Dīrgha-āgama parallel, the possibility that someone could be a Buddha without being in the possession of all of the thirty-two marks does not seem to be categorically ruled out.

Be that as it may, in contrast to these inabilities related to leadership positions, to speak of the impossibility of a female Paccekabuddha would imply equating womanhood with lesser spiritual abilities. A Paccekabuddha does not act as a teacher, so that there would be no need to take into account the preferences of ancient Indian patriarchal society. The question of being a Paccekabuddha is thus solely a question of spiritual ability, as a Paccekabuddha has to accomplish the difficult task of reaching awakening without the guidance of a teacher.

Hence to consider it impossible for a female to be a Paccekabuddha amounts to proposing that a woman by dint of her gender is incapable of the degree of spiritual ability required for realizing awakening without the guidance of a teacher. That this would indeed be the implication of this particular impossibility becomes evident in the individual translation, which contrasts this inability of a woman to the case of a man, who by dint of merit and wisdom can become a Paccekabuddha.[n.55] T 776 at T XVII 713b23 indicates that what is impossible for women is instead possible in the case of "a son of a good family who is endowed with the marks of a great man and adorned with merit and wisdom", 善男子, 具大人 相, 福慧莊嚴. In short, a woman would lack the merit and wisdom required for this feat.

The *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-(upadeśa-)śāstra goes even further. In a passage presented as a discourse quotation from the Discourse on Many Elements, this work proclaims that a woman can reach liberation only with the help of a man.[n.56] T 1509 at T XXV 237a19: "if a woman attains the liberation of Nirvāṇa, it is in dependence on a male that she attains it; it does not happen that she attains awakening on her own", 若女人得解脫涅槃, 亦因男子得, 無有自然得道; cf. also Lamotte 1944/1970: 1524. That is, from the perspective of this passage even for becoming an arahant a woman will need help by a male. At this point, the degradation of the spiritual abilities of women has become fully manifest.

In view of this evident tendency to devalue the abilities of women, it is quite significant that the Madhyama-āgama version does not mention any of the inabilities of women. An accidental loss of such a passage seems less probable in view of the recurrent tendency towards gradual expansion that appears to be at work in regard to other topics in all versions. A deliberate deletion of such a treatment is similarly improbable, since the five inabilities of a woman are listed in another Madhyama-āgama discourse.[n.57] Cf. below page 467.

This discourse is one of several canonical records of the Buddha permitting women to go forth as nuns, following a request by Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and an intervention in her favour by Ānanda. The five inabilities of women are also mentioned in a version of the same event in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya,[n.58] T 1421 at T XXII 186a12: "a woman has five obstructions, she cannot be Sakka, the ruler of gods, or the Heavenly King Māra, or the Heavenly King Brahmā, or a noble wheel-turning king or a king of the Dharma in the three realms", 女人有五礙, 不得作天帝釋, 魔天王, 梵天王, 轉輪聖王, 三界法王. The five impossibilities are also mentioned in EĀ 43.2 at T II 757c24, where they serve to explain why a woman cannot be given a prediction of future Buddha-hood. This passage thus shows a stage of development comparable to the extract from the Bodhisattvabhūmi quote above in note 53. A counterpart to the tale in EĀ 43.2 can be found in an apocryphal Pāli jātaka edited in Jaini 1989/ 2001; cf. also Gombrich 1980: 70 on a version of this tale in a Sinhala prose work composed in the 15th century. The occurrence of this tale in the Ekottarika-āgama is one of several passages indicating the integration of comparatively late elements into this discourse collection; cf. Anālayo 2009j and 2013c. whereas they are absent from accounts of this event in the Vinayas of the Dharmaguptaka, 'Haimavata' (?), Mahāsāṃghika, Mūlasarvāstivāda and Theravāda traditions.[n.59] Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 922c to 923c, the 'Haimavata' (?) Vinayamātṛka, T 1463 at T XXIV 803a to 803c, the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, Roth 1970: 4–21, the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, T 1451 at T XXIV 350b to 351c, and the Theravāda Vinaya, Vin II 253 to 256 (= AN 8.51 at AN IV 274 to 279); cf. also the survey in Heirman 2001: 282.

As the passage on the inabilities of women occurs at different junctions in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya and in the Madhyama-āgama discourse, it seems probable that this topic is not an original part of the account of the foundation of the order of nuns;[n.60] In the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya , T 1421 at T XXII 186a12, the inabilities of women stand at the beginning of several passages that describe the negative repercussions of allowing women to go forth. In MĀ 116 at T I 607b10 (and in its close parallel T 61 at T I 858a1), women's inabilities come at the end of a comparable series of passages on the detrimental consequences of permitting women to ordain. similar to the above discussed case where two out of six versions of the Discourse on Many Elements have a reference to the aggregates that occurs at different junctions in these two versions (see table 14), where other indications confirm that this reference is a later addition.

Returning to the Bahudhātuka-sutta and its parallels, when considered against the background of the purpose of the whole discourse, the theme of what a woman cannot achieve appears to be quite irrelevant. The different versions agree that the Buddha gave his disciple Ānanda an exposition on essential aspects of the Dharma that are required for the development of wisdom. That the development of wisdom requires insight into the elements, the sense-spheres and dependent arising is quite straightforward. The same could also be said for insight into the karmic consequences of wholesome and unwholesome deeds or for knowledge about certain qualities of a stream-enterer. Such items would still be in line with the general canonical conception of wisdom, which stands for a type of insight and understanding that leads to liberation,[n.61] MN 43 at MN I 293,36 indicates that the purpose of wisdom is to develop "direct knowledge", "penetrative knowledge" and "abandoning", paññā ... abhiññatthā pariññatthā pahānatthā; its parallel MĀ 211 at T I 790c22 similarly explains that wisdom has the purpose of leading to "disenchantment", to "dispassion" and to a "vision in accordance with reality", 智慧者有厭義, 無欲義, 見如真義. not for a mere accumulation of various and perhaps irrelevant facts.

In contrast, to know if a wheel-turning king, a heavenly king, a Sakka, a Māra, a Brahmā, a Paccekabuddha or a Buddha can be female would be of little relevance to Ānanda, who was living at a time when the ruling positions in the various heavens were held to have been already occupied by males, and when the one male who according to tradition could have become a wheel-turning king had already become a Buddha instead. Given that as a stream-enterer Ānanda would not have had any reason to aspire to become any of these,[n.62] SN 22.83 at SN III 106,3 and its parallel SĀ 261 at T II 66b3 record how Ānanda became a stream-enterer, which Vin II 183,21 indicates to have happened soon after his ordination. it would be difficult to conceive of any practical relevance that knowledge of gender restrictions for occupying these positions could have had for Ānanda.[n.63] Pérez-remón 1980: 357 note 48 comments, regarding the impossibilities of two Buddhas or two wheel-turning kings arising simultaneously and the impossibilities of women: "these impossibilities and their corresponding possibilities are introduced in between the other impossibilities and possibilities regarding moral matters, interrupting the enumeration of things morally possible or impossible, a fact that might indicate their later interpolation". Singh 2010:149 comments that "later texts have added to the perceived limitations of being a woman, such as being unable to rule [as a cakkavartin, etc.] ... these can be seen as consequences of cultural influence on Buddhism, and [of] not adhering to known teachings of the Buddha".

In sum, since an accidental loss or an intentional omission of an exposition on the inabilities of women in the Madhyama-āgama discourse seems improbable, the most straightforward conclusion would be that the theme of women's inability is a later addition to the exposition on impossibilities in the different versions of the Discourse on Many Elements. Thus in this respect the Madhyama-āgama version quite probably testifies to an early stage, when the theme of what women cannot achieve had not yet become part of the discourse.

As part of the general tendency to expand on various impossibilities, however, this theme must have soon enough made its way into various versions of the discourse.[n.64] Kajiyama 1982: 58 concludes that, regarding the listing of inabilities of women, "it is most likely that the dictum did not exist when the Buddhist Order maintained one and the same tradition, but that it was created after the Order was divided into many schools and was inserted into sūtras of various schools". However, the suggestion by Kajiyama 1982: 70 that "the dictum that a woman is incapable of becoming a Buddha arose probably in the first century B.C." may be putting things at too late a time. Whereas the inability of a woman to be a Buddha can still be seen as an expression of leadership conceptions held in ancient Indian patriarchal society, once her inability to be a Paccekabuddha becomes part of the listing of impossibilities, the implications are clearly a diminishing of the spiritual abilities of women. This tendency can safely be assumed to stand in contrast to the teachings of early Buddhism, where – as far as the texts allow us to judge – gender was not considered to have an impact on spiritual abilities.