Introduction

In the present chapter I study the canonical records of how the Buddha's son Rāhula attained full liberation. The instructions that led to his awakening are reported in the Rāhulovāda-sutta in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, which recurs in the Majjhima-nikāya,[n.1] [10] SN 35.121 at SN IV 105,11 to SN IV 107,32, which corresponds to MN 147 at MN III 277,21 to MN III 280,11. and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel.[n.2] [11] SĀ 200 at T II 51a15 to T II 51c10. After translating both discourses, I examine the indication given in the Saṃyukta-āgama version that teaching central aspects of the Dharma to others prepared Rāhula for the decisive breakthrough. This indication, which is not made in the Saṃyutta-nikāya version, highlights the contribution that according to early Buddhist thought teaching can offer for progress towards liberation.

From the perspective of oral transmission it is remarkable that the Rāhulovāda-sutta and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel in a way complement each other. The Saṃyukta-āgama version reports in detail what preceded the final instruction that triggered Rāhula's full awakening, an instruction it gives only in an abbreviated form. The Saṃyutta-nikāya (or else Majjhima-nikāya) version, however, does not cover the preliminaries. Instead, it sets in directly with the final teaching, which it reports in considerable detail.

Due to the different coverage of the two discourses, reading the Chinese and Pāli versions consecutively results in a nearly continuous account of Rāhula's awakening. Hence, in what follows, I first present a translation of the Saṃyukta-āgama discourse, followed by a translation of the Saṃyutta-nikāya version.

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Translation (1)

[Discourse to Rāhula][n.3] [14] I follow Akanuma 1929/1990: 39, who suggests "Rāhula", 羅睺羅, as a title for the present as well as several preceding discourses in the Saṃyukta-āgama.

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was staying at Sāvatthī in Jeta's Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika's Park. Then the venerable Rāhula approached the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, withdrew to sit to one side, and said to the Buddha:

"It would be well if the Blessed One were to teach me the Dharma so that, on having heard the Dharma, I will in a quiet and secluded place engage in meditative contemplation and abide in diligence. Having in a quiet and secluded place engaged in meditative contemplation and abided in diligence, I will contemplate in such a way that I see the Dharma for whose sake clansmen shave their hair and beard, with proper faith become homeless, go forth to train in the path, to practise and uphold the holy life, realizing and knowing by myself that: 'Birth has been destroyed for me, the holy life has been established, what had to be done has been done' – knowing by myself that there will be no experiencing of further existence."

Then the Blessed One, observing that Rāhula's liberation of the mind and his wisdom were not yet mature, that he was not yet ready to receive the higher Dharma, asked Rāhula: "Have you taught the five aggregates of clinging to people?"

Rāhula replied to the Buddha: "Not yet, Blessed One." The Buddha told Rāhula: "You should give teachings on the five aggregates of clinging to people."

Then, having received this instruction from the Buddha, on another occasion Rāhula gave teachings on the five aggregates of clinging to people. Having expounded them, he again approached the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, withdrew to sit to one side, and said to the Buddha:

"Blessed One, I have expounded the five aggregates of clinging to people. I would wish that the Blessed One teaches me the Dharma so that, on having heard the Dharma, I will in a quiet and secluded place engage in meditative contemplation and abide in diligence … up to … knowing by myself that there will be no experiencing of further existence."[n.4] [15] Abbreviations are found in the original.

Then the Blessed One, observing again that Rāhula's liberation of the mind and his knowledge were not yet mature, that he was not ready to receive the higher Dharma, asked Rāhula: "Have you expounded the six sense-spheres to people?"

Rāhula replied to the Buddha: "Not yet, Blessed One."
The Buddha told Rāhula: "You should give teachings on the six sense-spheres to people."

Then, on another occasion Rāhula gave teachings on the six sense-spheres to people. Having expounded the six sensespheres, he approached the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, withdrew to sit to one side, and said to the Buddha:

"Blessed One, I have given teachings on the six sensespheres to people. I would wish that the Blessed One teaches me the Dharma so that, on having heard the Dharma, I will in a quiet and secluded place engage in meditative contemplation and abide in diligence … up to … knowing by myself that there will be no experiencing of further existence."

Then the Blessed One, observing [again] that Rāhula's liberation of the mind and his knowledge were not yet mature, that he was not ready to receive the higher Dharma, asked Rāhula: "Have you expounded the principle of causality to people?"

Rāhula replied to the Buddha: "Not yet, Blessed One."
The Buddha told Rāhula: "You should give teachings on the principle of causality to people."

Then Rāhula, having on another occasion given teachings on the principle of causality to people, approached the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, withdrew to sit to one side, and said to the Buddha:

"[May] the Blessed One teach me the Dharma so that, on having heard the Dharma, I will in a quiet and secluded place engage in meditative contemplation and abide in diligence … up to … knowing by myself that there will be no experiencing of further existence."

Then the Blessed One reflected again that Rāhula's liberation of the mind and his knowledge were not yet mature … to be spoken in full up to … he told Rāhula: "You should in a quiet and secluded place engage in meditative contemplation and reflect on the meaning of those teachings you earlier expounded."

Then Rāhula, having received the Buddha's instruction and orders, contemplated and pondered the teachings he earlier had heard and expounded, reflecting on their meaning. He thought: "All these teachings proceed towards Nirvāṇa, flow towards Nirvāṇa, ultimately establish [one] in Nirvāṇa."

Then Rāhula went to the Buddha, paid respect with his head at the Buddha's feet, withdrew to sit to one side, and said to the Buddha: "Blessed One, in a quiet and secluded place I contemplated and pondered the teachings I earlier had heard and expounded, reflecting on their meaning. I understood that all these teachings proceed towards Nirvāṇa, flow towards Nirvāṇa, and ultimately establish [one] in Nirvāṇa."

Then the Blessed One, observing that Rāhula's liberation of the mind and his knowledge were mature, that he was ready to receive the higher Dharma, told Rāhula: "Rāhula, everything is impermanent. What kind of things are impermanent? That is, the eye is impermanent, forms, eye-consciousness, eye-contact …" as spoken above in detail on impermanence.

Then Rāhula, having heard what the Buddha said, was delighted, rejoiced, paid respect to the Buddha, and went back. Then, having received the Buddha's teaching, Rāhula in a quiet and secluded place engaged in meditative contemplation and abided in diligence. He saw the Dharma for whose sake clansmen shave their hair and beard, don the ochre robes, with proper faith become homeless, go forth to train in the path, to practise the pure holy life … up to … he realized and knew by himself that: "Birth has been destroyed for me, the holy life has been established, what had to be done has been done", knowing by himself that there will be no experiencing of further existence. He had become an arahant whose mind was well liberated.

When the Buddha had spoken this discourse, hearing what the Buddha had said Rāhula was delighted and received it respectfully.

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Translation (2)

Discourse to Rāhula[n.5] [16] Following Ee. Be has the title "Exhortation to Rāhula", Rāhulovāda-sutta, as does Ce, reading Rāhuḷovāda-sutta. The title Rāhulovāda recurs in Mhv 30.83, Geiger 1958: 241,21.

At one time the Blessed One was staying at Sāvatthī in Jeta's Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika's Park. Then, while the Blessed One was alone in meditative seclusion, this thought arose in his mind:

"In [the mind of] Rāhula the states that ripen in liberation have become mature. What if I were to lead Rāhula further onwards to the destruction of the influxes?"

Then, in the morning, the Blessed One dressed and, carrying his bowl and robe, went into Sāvatthī for alms.[n.6] [17] My translation follows Ce and Se, which unlike Be and Ee have sāvatthiṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi before sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya caritvā. In the case of MN 147, these four editions agree on reading sāvatthiṃ piṇḍāya pāvisi, sāvatthiyaṃ piṇḍāya caritvā. When he had walked for alms in Sāvatthī and had returned from his alms-round, after his meal, he addressed the venerable Rāhula:

"Take your sitting mat, Rāhula, let us go to the Blind Men's Grove for the day's abiding."

Having assented [by saying]: "Yes, venerable sir", the venerable Rāhula, taking his sitting mat, followed closely behind the Blessed One.

At that time several thousand devas were following the Blessed One [with the thought]: "Today the Blessed One will lead the venerable Rāhula further onwards to the destruction of the influxes."

Then the Blessed One, having entered the Blind Men's Grove, sat down on a seat prepared at the root of a tree. Having paid homage to the Blessed One, the venerable Rāhula sat to one side. The Blessed One spoke like this to the venerable Rāhula, who was sitting to one side:

"What do you think, Rāhula, is the eye permanent or impermanent?"

[Rāhula replied]: "It is impermanent, venerable sir".

[The Buddha asked again]: "What is impermanent, is it dukkha or pleasurable?"

[Rāhula replied]: "It is dukkha, venerable sir."
[The Buddha asked again]: "What is impermanent, dukkha, and subject to change, is it fit to be regarded as: 'This is mine, this I am, this is my self'?"

[Rāhula replied]: "No, venerable sir."
[The Buddha continued to ask]: "Rāhula, what do you think? Are forms permanent or impermanent? … [n.7] [18] The abbreviations are my own (the editions vary in the degree to which they abbreviate); for each item, the passage given above for the eye should be applied in full. Is eye-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is eye-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by eye-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent? …

"Is the ear permanent or impermanent? … Are sounds permanent or impermanent? … Is ear-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is ear-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by ear-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent? …

"Is the nose permanent or impermanent? … Are smells permanent or impermanent? … Is nose-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is nose-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by nose-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent? …

"Is the tongue permanent or impermanent? … Are flavours permanent or impermanent? … Is tongue-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is tongue-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by tongue-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent? …

"Is the body permanent or impermanent? … Are tangibles permanent or impermanent? … Is body-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is body-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by body-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent? …

"Is the mind permanent or impermanent? … Are mindobjects permanent or impermanent? … Is mind-consciousness permanent or impermanent? … Is mind-contact permanent or impermanent? … Conditioned by mind-contact, what arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, is it permanent or impermanent?"

[Rāhula replied]: "It is impermanent, venerable sir."
[The Buddha asked again]: "What is impermanent, is it dukkha or pleasurable?"

[Rāhula replied]: "It is dukkha, venerable sir."
[The Buddha asked again]: "What is impermanent, dukkha, and subject to change, is it fit to be regarded as: 'This is mine, this I am, this is my self'?"

[Rāhula replied]: "No, venerable sir."
[The Buddha said]: "Rāhula, seeing it like this a learned noble disciple becomes disenchanted with the eye … with forms … with eye-consciousness … with eye-contact … with what conditioned by eye-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"He becomes disenchanted with the ear … with sounds … with ear-consciousness … with ear-contact … with what conditioned by ear-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"He becomes disenchanted with the nose … with smells … with nose-consciousness … with nose-contact … with what conditioned by nose-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"He becomes disenchanted with the tongue … with flavours … with tongue-consciousness … with tongue-contact … with what conditioned by tongue-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"He becomes disenchanted with the body … with tangibles … with body-consciousness … with body-contact … with what conditioned by body-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"He becomes disenchanted with the mind … with mindobjects … with mind-consciousness … with mind-contact … with what conditioned by mind-contact arises pertaining to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

"Being disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion he is liberated. In [attaining] liberation there is the knowledge of being 'liberated' and he understands: 'Birth has been destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no further of this state of becoming.'"

This is what the Blessed One said. The venerable Rāhula was glad and delighted in the Blessed One's words. When this discourse was spoken, the mind of the venerable Rāhula was liberated from the influxes through not clinging. To the several thousand devas the dustless stainless eye of the Dharma arose and [they understood that]: "Whatever is subject to arising, all that is subject to cessation."

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Study

Before turning to the presentation in the two discourses translated above, in what follows I briefly survey records of other teachings given to Rāhula that have been preserved elsewhere in Pāli discourses as well as in parallel versions.[n.8] [1] My survey therefore does not cover, e.g., the instructions at Sn 335–342, as to my knowledge no parallel version is extant. On Rāhula cf. also Malalasekera 1938/1998: 737–740, Pāsādika 2004, Saddhasena 2005, and Crosby 2013.

Other Teachings to Rāhula

An instruction related to basic ethics given to him can be found in the Ambalaṭṭhikārāhulovāda-sutta and its parallels, which begin by emphasizing the importance of avoiding falsehood, even if this is spoken just for fun.

Whereas the discourse versions do not provide a background to this injunction, the Vinayavibhaṅga of the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition and the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa (大智度論) report that Rāhula had in a somewhat playful mood given wrong information to visitors, who had enquired after the Buddha's whereabouts.[n.9] [2] The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinayavibhaṅga reports that Rāhula would send visitors who wished to meet the Buddha to the wrong location, telling them that the Buddha was at Mount Vulture Peak when in reality he was at the Bamboo Grove, etc., T 1442 at T XXIII 760b19 and D 3 cha 215a6 or Q 1032 je 199b3. According to the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, however, Rāhula had told visitors that the Buddha was away, even though the Buddha was there, or else he had told them that the Buddha was in, when in reality the Buddha had left, T 1509 at T XXV 158a13, translated in Lamotte 1949/1981: 813; cf. also T 1813 at T XL 623b17.

According to the Ambalaṭṭhikārāhulovāda-sutta and its parallels, after delivering a set of similes to illustrate the need to beware of falsehood,[n.10] [3] These similes are found in MN 61 at MN I 414,11, MĀ 14 at T I 436a20, translated in Lévi 1896: 476 and Minh Chau 1964/1991: 290, a Dharmapada Avadāna collection, T 211 at T IV 600a1, translated in Willemen 1999: 171, an Udāna collection, T 212 at T IV 668a10, and the Vinayavibhaṅga, T 1442 at T XXIII 760c5 and D 3 cha 215b7 or Q 1032 je 200a4; cf. also the Udānavargavivaraṇa, Balk 1984: 378,11, and the study of the stanzas found in some versions after the similes by Skilling 1996. the Buddha highlighted the importance of reflecting before, during, and after any action undertaken on the bodily, verbal, or mental level. This instruction delineates a central principle for training in ethical conduct that is of considerable practical relevance. Such regular reflection could indeed be expected to help a young monk like Rāhula to perfect his behaviour gradually and thereby prepare the groundwork in morality for his eventual breakthrough to awakening.[n.11] [4] The practical relevance of these injunctions would have provided a reason for the present discourse to be mentioned in Aśoka's Bairāṭ-Bhābṛā Minor Rock Edict, Woolner 1924/1993: 34, which refers to the Lāghulovāda "spoken by the Blessed One, the Buddha, concerning falsehood".

The Mahārāhulovāda-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya and its Ekottarika-āgama parallel record another lesson to Rāhula. This covers contemplation of the aggregates,[n.12] [5] MN 62 at MN I 421,3 and EĀ 17.1 at T II 581c3, translated in Huyen-Vi et al. 1993: 213. The two versions agree that he was at first only instructed on contemplating the aggregate of form, after which the instruction was applied to the other aggregates. the brahmavihāras, contemplation of the absence of beauty (in the body), and mindfulness of breathing.[n.13] [6] Although instructions on the five elements as in MN 62 at MN I 421,27 are not found in EĀ 17.1, for four elements they do occur in EĀ 43.5 at T II 760a6. These instructions thus provide details on a range of meditation practices.

The development of insight is further explored in a set of discourses in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and their counterparts in the Saṃyukta-āgama, which report detailed expositions given to Rāhula on the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and not-self nature of various aspects related to the sense-spheres, instructions that eventually also cover the elements and the aggregates.[n.14] [7] SN 18.1 to 18.10 at SN II 244,12 to 249,17 and SĀ 897 at T II 225b11, which gives only the first item, the senses, and then indicates that the instruction should be continued in the same way up to the aggregates, T II 225b17; cf. also SN 18.11 to 18.20 at SN II 249,25 to 252,6 which repeat the instruction given in SN 18.1 to 18.10, differing from the first set of ten discourses in their introductory section.

In another set of discourses in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and the Saṃyukta-āgama, Rāhula receives teachings on the not-self nature of the five aggregates.[n.15] [8] SN 18.21 to 18.22 at SN II 252,7 to 253,30 and SN 22.91 to 22.92 at SN III 135,24 to 137,6, with parallels in SĀ 23 to 24 at T II 5a11 to b25, translated in Anālayo 2012h: 40–43; cf. also SĀ 198 to 199 at T II 50c7 to 51a14, where similar instructions are applied to the senses. A discourse in the Aṅguttara-nikāya and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel report him being taught on the elements.[n.16] [9] In AN 4.177 at AN II 164,26 Rāhula receives a teaching on the not-self nature of the four elements of earth, water, fire, and wind, whereas in SĀ 465 at T II 118c29 the teaching on not-self given to him covers six elements, including space and consciousness.

The Instructions Leading to Rāhula's Awakening

The discourses surveyed above show Rāhula being instructed not only in basic morality, but also in a range of meditation practices and approaches for the cultivation of insight that one would expect to suffice to lead him to full awakening. It is against this background that the presentation in the two discourses translated above stands out with increased clarity.

What makes the Saṃyukta-āgama version of these two discourses so remarkable is its presentation of teaching activities as a means to mature Rāhula's mental condition.[n.17] [19] An account similar in several respects to SĀ 200 can be found in an Udāna collection preserved in Chinese, T 212 at T IV 625b27, where the Buddha tells Rāhula that he should recite teachings on dependent arising, on the five aggregates, and finally on the six types of contact. After he has done so and subsequently reflected on the significance of these teachings, Rāhula attains liberation, T 212 at T IV 626c12. Although such an indication is not made in the Saṃyutta-nikāya version, the notion that instructing others forms part of the path to awakening is certainly not foreign to the thought-world of the Pāli discourses. The Mahāgopālaka-sutta, for example, counts willingness to teach the Dharma as one of the qualities required for a monk to be able to "come to growth, increase and fulfilment in the Dharma".[n.18] [20] MN 33 at MN I 223,27 (cf. also AN 11.18 at AN V 352,5): idha … bhikkhu yathāsutaṃ yathāpariyattaṃ dhammaṃ vitthārena paresaṃ desetā hoti, which according to MN 33 at MN I 224,26 (cf. also AN 11.18 at AN V 353,14) is one of the conditions for bhabbo imasmiṃ dhammavinaye vuddhiṃ (Se: vuḍḍhiṃ) virūḷhiṃ vepullaṃ āpajjituṃ. Parallels to this discourse preserved in Chinese make the same point.[n.19] [21] SĀ 1249 at T II 343a5 (cf. above p. 42ff), T 123 at T II 546b15, EĀ 49.1 at T II 794b8, and T 1509 at T XXV 74a21, translated in Lamotte 1944/1981: 150. Chung 2008: 205 lists the as yet unpublished Sanskrit fragment MS 2380 50b+51a of the Schøyen collection as another parallel.

Besides being mentioned as a requirement for progress towards liberation, teaching the Dharma to others also constitutes one out of five occasions when the actual breakthrough to liberation can take place.[n.20] [22] For a more detailed study of the vimuttāyatanas cf. Anālayo 2009h. These five occasions or "spheres of liberation" (vimuttāyatana) are as follows:

Table 7: Five Spheres of Liberation

• when hearing the Dharma
• when teaching the Dharma
• when reciting the Dharma
• when reflecting about the Dharma
• when meditating

Listings of these five spheres of liberation in the Saṅgīti-sutta,[n.21] [23] DN 33 at DN III 241,15 (= DN 34 at DN III 279,12). The same can also be found in the parallels DĀ 9 at T I 51c11 (cf. also DĀ 10 at T I 53c22); cf. also the reconstruction of the Daśottara-sūtra fragments in Mittal 1957: 72 (Saṅgīti-sūtra fragment M 703 V1, Stache-Rosen 1968a: 28, abbreviates) and the Saṅgītiparyāya, T 1536 at T XXVI 424a29. as well as in a discourse in the Aṅguttara-nikāya,[n.22] [24] AN 5.26 at AN III 21,28. Although AN 5.26 does not appear to have a parallel, the same vimuttāyatana as part of a set of five is mentioned, e.g., in SĀ 565 at T II 149a11 and its Tibetan counterpart D 4094 nyu 48a7 or Q 5595 thu 88a7. indicate that on each of these five occasions insight into the Dharma leads to the arising of delight and joy, which in turn lead to tranquillity, happiness, and concentration. [n.23] [25] DN 33 at DN III 241,18: tassa atthapaṭisaṃvedino dhammapaṭisaṃvedino pāmojjaṃ (Ce: pāmujjaṃ) jāyati, pamuditassa pīti jāyati, pītimanassa kāyo passambhati, passaddhakāyo sukhaṃ vedeti, sukhino cittaṃ samādhiyati. This brings into play qualities found in the standard listing of awakening factors (bojjhaṅga), where joy (pīti) leads via tranquillity (passadhi) and happiness (sukha) to concentration (samādhi).[n.24] [26] MN 118 at MN III 86,4 and SĀ 810 at T II 208b22 (cf. below p. 334ff).

The Dīrgha-āgama parallel to the Saṅgīti-sutta offers additional information, as it indicates that teaching the Dharma can become an occasion for liberation if one is energetic without slacking, delights in seclusion, and develops mindfulness as well as a one-pointed mind.[n.25] [27] DĀ 9 at T I 51c3 (cf. also DĀ 10 at T I 53c15): "if a monk is untiringly energetic, delights in remote and quiet places, with collected mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, he will gain liberation [from what] he has not yet been liberated [from], he will gain eradication of what he has not yet eradicated, he will gain appeasement of what he has not yet appeased," 若比丘精勤不懈, 樂 閑靜處, 專念, 一心, 未解得解, 未盡得盡, 未安得安.

Here to be energetic can be understood as representative of overcoming unwholesome states and developing wholesome ones, in accordance with the standard descriptions of the four right efforts.[n.26] [28] For listings of the four sammappadhānas cf., e.g., SN 49.1 at SN V 244,2 and SĀ 877 at T II 221a22, which speaks of the four "right eradications", 正斷; on this terminology cf. Bapat 1969: 5 and Minh Chau 1964/1991: 327. The corresponding samyakprahāṇa can be found, e.g., in SHT I 614 folio b V5 to R1, Waldschmidt 1965: 273, in the Divyāvadāna, Cowell and Neil 1886: 208,8, in the Lalitavistara, Lefmann 1902: 8,5, and in a Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra fragment, S 360 folio 180 V5, Waldschmidt 1950: 23. The Mahāvastu, Senart 1897: 120,14, instead speaks of samyakpradhāna, as does the Saundaranandakāvya 17.24, Johnston 1928: 127,15; cf. also Lamotte 1944/1970: 1123. On samyakprahāṇa versus samyakpradhāna cf., e.g., Har Dayal 1932/1970: 102 and Gethin 1992: 70. Delight in seclusion points to the living style appropriate for intensive cultivation of the mind as well as to a mental condition that is 'secluded' from unwholesome states as the result of meditative training.

Particularly significant is the reference to mindfulness, which in the description of the consecutive development of the seven factors of awakening in the Ānāpānasati-sutta and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel forms the starting point. Based on mindfulness, the awakening factors build on each other in a series that proceeds via investigation-of-dharmas (dhammavicaya) to joy, tranquillity, happiness, and concentration, which then culminates in equipoise. [n.27] [29] MN 118 at MN III 85,11 and SĀ 810 at T II 208b15. Joy, tranquillity, happiness, and concentration are the very mental qualities that the Saṅgīti-sutta and its Dīrgha-āgama parallel associate with the spheres of liberation.

When explaining the function of investigation-of-dharmas, the Ānāpānasati-sutta speaks of examining with wisdom "that Dharma".[n.28] [30] MN 118 at MN III 85,18: "at the time when he investigates and examines that Dharma with wisdom and undertakes a full enquiry into it, then at that time the awakening factor of investigation-of-dharmas is brought into being", yasmiṃ samaye … taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinati pavicarati (Be and Ce: pavicayati) parivīmaṃsaṃ āpajjati, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye … āraddho hoti. SĀ 810 at T II 208b17: "he discriminates and examines the Dharma, at that time he diligently cultivates the awakening factor of discrimination-of-dharmas", 於法選擇思量, 爾時方便修擇法覺分; cf. below p. 339. The use of the singular suggests that what is being investigated is the Dharma in the sense of the teaching proclaimed by the Buddha.[n.29] [31] On various nuances of the term dharma in early Buddhist discourse cf., e.g., Geiger and Geiger 1920, Carter 1978, and Gethin 2004. That investigation-of-dharmas can indeed refer to an examination of the teaching is reflected in another discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya, according to which this awakening factor should be developed by investigating with wisdom the Dharma that one has heard, remembered, and reflected on.[n.30] [32] SN 46.3 at SN V 67,24: dhammaṃ sutvā … taṃ dhammaṃ anussarati anuvitakketi … yasmiṃ samaye … taṃ dhammaṃ paññāya pavicinati pavicarati parivīmaṃsam āpajjati, dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo tasmiṃ samaye … āraddho hoti. The same awakening factor can, however, also be directed to dharmas (plural), in the sense of wholesome and unwholesome states, as indicated in SN 46.51 at SN V 104,8 and SN 46.52 at SN V 111,1; cf. also Gethin 1992: 147–154.

The above indicates that on the occasion of teaching the Dharma, a development of the factors of awakening from mindfulness up to concentration could take place.

The Dīrgha-āgama parallel to the Saṅgīti-sutta goes a step further, as it describes that, with a mind concentrated in this way, one knows and sees things as they truly are.[n.31] [33] DĀ 9 at T I 51c9 (cf. also DĀ 10 at T I 53c20): "having attained absorption concentration, one attains knowledge and vision [of things] as they really are", 得禪定已, 得實知見. This echoes a recurrent description in the Pāli discourses, according to which concentration leads to seeing and knowing things as they truly are, which in turn results in attaining liberation.[n.32] [34] E.g., AN 10.2 at AN V 3,10 indicates that "it is a law of nature that one who is concentrated knows and sees [things] as they truly are … it is a law of nature that one who knows and sees [things] as they truly are becomes disenchanted and dispassionate … it is a law of nature that one who is disenchanted and dispassionate realizes knowledge and vision of liberation", dhammatā esā … yaṃ samāhito yathābhūtaṃ jānāti passati … dhammatā esā … yaṃ yathābhūtaṃ jānaṃ passaṃ nibbindati virajjati … dhammatā esā … yaṃ nibbindo (Be and Se: nibbinno, Ce: nibbiṇṇo) viratto vimuttiñāṇadassanaṃ sacchikaroti. MĀ 43 at T I 485c4 similarly points out that: "it is a law of nature that one who is concentrated will see [things] as they really are and know [things] as they really are … it is a law of nature that one who sees [things] as they really are and knows [things] as they really are will become disenchanted … it is a law of nature that one who is disenchanted will become dispassionate … it is a law of nature that one who is dispassionate will become totally liberated from lust, anger, and delusion", 但法自然, 有定者, 便得見如實知如真 … 但法自 然, 有見如實知如真者, 便得厭 … 但法自然, 有厭者, 便得無欲 … 但法自 然, 有無欲者, 便得解脫一切婬怒癡. How seeing and knowing things as they truly are arrives at the breakthrough to liberation can be gathered from a description of the spheres of liberation in the Abhidharmakośavyākhyā, which clarifies that the intermediate steps are disenchantment and dispassion.[n.33] [35] Wogihara 1932: 54,7: samāhitacitto yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti yathābhūtaṃ paśyati, yathābhūtaṃ prajānan yathābhūtaṃ paśyan nirvidyate, nirviṇṇo virajyate, virakto vimucyate, a passage whose importance for understanding the spheres of liberation has already been highlighted by Pāsādika 1990: 26; cf. also Pāsādika 2003: 68f. A comparable passage can be found in the Saṅgītiparyāya, where the final section describes the transitional stage in similar detail, T 1536 at T XXVI 424a10: "because the mind is concentrated one knows and sees [things] as they truly are; because one knows and sees [things] as they truly are, disenchantment arises; because there is disenchantment one is able to become detached; because there is detachment one attains liberation", 心定故如實知見, 如實知見故生厭, 厭故能離, 離故得解脫. The same steps are mentioned similarly in the standard accounts in the Pāli discourses of the transition from knowledge and vision that accords with reality to the attainment of liberation.[n.34] [36] Cf. above note 32.

Against the background of this dynamic, it becomes clearer how, according to the above-translated Saṃyukta-āgama discourse, delivering teachings on central aspects of the Dharma could have promoted the maturation of Rāhula's mental condition, a process presumably brought to its culmination point by reflecting on the same topics in seclusion.

Hence the narration of the events preceding Rāhula's awakening in the Saṃyukta-āgama could be seen as a practical illustration of the stipulation in the Mahāgopālaka-sutta, mentioned above, according to which teaching the Dharma contributes to one's own growth in the Dharma. Although the early discourses highlight the danger of prematurely setting oneself up as a teacher, [n.35] [37] This danger is illustrated in MN 8 at MN I 45,3 and its parallel MĀ 91 at T I 574b3, which compare such attempts to someone who tries to pull out another from the mud while sinking in the mud himself. nevertheless, from an early Buddhist perspective to teach others seems to be considered an integral aspect of the path to liberation.[n.36] On the mistaken notion that early Buddhism, or for that matter any Buddhist tradition, could be correctly characterized as hīnayāna cf. Anālayo 2014f.

The specific contribution made by the Saṃyukta-āgama description of Rāhula's awakening is to throw into relief how teaching central aspects of the Dharma like the five aggregates, the six sense-spheres, and dependent arising can bring about a clearer grasp of their purport. Further matured through meditative seclusion, this then yields the insight that they all converge on Nirvāṇa. Such a process of inner maturation then forms the basis for the breakthrough to full awakening by contemplating the impermanent nature of all aspects of experience.

This contemplation is depicted in detail in the Saṃyutta-nikāya version, which on closer inspection can be seen to bring in the very same three themes – the senses, the aggregates, and conditionality – that according to the Saṃyukta-āgama account Rāhula had to teach to others. The instruction in the Saṃyutta-nikāya version progresses from contact through each of the six senses to the four mental aggregates that arise in dependence on such contact (which itself stands representative of the first aggregate of material form).

The Saṃyutta-nikāya version also draws out in more detail the dynamics of contemplation of impermanence, as it clarifies that what is impermanent is unsatisfactory, and what is unsatisfactory is not fit to be taken as 'I', 'mine' or 'my self', in this way showing the interrelatedness of the three characteristics. [n.37] [38] For a more detailed examination of this basic dynamic cf. Anālayo 2012e. The ensuing process of disenchantment and dispassion – paralleling the descriptions of the dynamics inherent in the spheres of liberation – then brings about the breakthrough to liberation. Whereas in the Saṃyutta-nikāya version this takes place right on hearing the instructions, in the Saṃyukta-āgama version further practice in seclusion leads to the same successful outcome – the attainment of full awakening.

As and when one clearly comprehends
The arising and passing away of the aggregates,
One gains joy and delight,
[Coming to] know the deathless.[n.38] [39] Dhp 374, with parallels in Gāndhārī Dharmapada stanza 56, Brough 1962/ 2001: 126, Patna Dharmapada stanza 61, Cone 1989: 119, Uv 32.10, Bernhard 1965a: 434, with its Tibetan counterpart in stanza 32.11, Beckh 1911: 132, and three Chinese counterparts; cf. T 210 at T IV 572a20, translated in Dhammajoti 1995: 254 (stanza 34.14), T 212 at T IV 765c18, and T 213 at T IV 796c4, translated in Willemen 1978: 159 (stanza 32.9).