Introduction

In the present chapter I examine three discourses in the Dīrgha-āgama preserved in Chinese translation that are not found in the collections of long discourses extant in Pāli and Sanskrit. My presentation proceeds through four main parts: I begin by surveying the extant collections of long discourses and then turn to three Dīrgha-āgama discourses that are without parallels: DĀ 11, the Discourse Increasing by One, of which I provide a translation; DĀ 12, the Discourse on the Three Groups, which is similar in type and which I translate in the next chapter; and DĀ 30, the Discourse on a Record of the World. The main thrust of my investigation is towards gaining a better understanding of the nature of these three discourses and to ascertain if they should be reckoned as later additions to the Dīrgha-āgama extant in Chinese translation.

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The Collections of Long Discourses

The Vinayas of different Buddhist schools report that a division of the scriptural collections into āgamas or nikāyas was already used at the first "communal recitation", saṅgīti,[n.1] On the term saṅgīti cf., e.g., Tilakaratne 2000b and Skilling 2009: 55–60; on the āgamas as a grouping of texts cf. below p. 449ff. which according to the traditional account was held soon after the Buddha's decease. Although the traditional accounts are of course influenced by later conceptions of canonicity, the fact that, in spite of various differences, they agree on this basic fourfold division makes it fairly probable that this way of arranging the discourse material for oral transmission is relatively early. Most Vinayas first mention the collection of long discourses when listing the four āgamas or nikāyas.[n.2] The Dīrgha-āgama is mentioned in first place in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 968b19, the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, T 1425 at XXII 491c16 (with a variant listing at 492c18), in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, T 1421 at T XXII 191a24, and in the Theravāda Vinaya, Vin II 287,16 (which does not list the order explicitly, although the position of the Dīgha-nikāya is implicit in the circumstance that the Brahmajāla (DN 1) and the Sāmaññaphala (DN 2) are on record as having been the first discourses recited at the saṅgīti). An exception is the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, T 1451 at T XXIV 407b27, which has the Saṃyukta-āgama in first place. Translations of several of these Vinaya accounts can be found in Przyluski 1926 and Anuruddha et al. 2008. Perhaps considerations of length influenced this choice, in that the collection of long discourses was placed before collections of discourses that are shorter in length.[n.3] Alternatively it might also be that this decision was influenced by the principle of waxing syllables. According to this principle, words with fewer syllables in a series of terms are followed by words with an equal or a greater number of syllables; cf. below 474ff. Following the principle of waxing syllables, the dī(r)gha would come in first position when the four āgamas/nikāyas are listed (as in the Vinaya accounts mentioned in the previous note), because the term dī(r)gha is the only one that has just two syllables. In an oral setting the order of reciting the listing could then have influenced the actual placement of the collections. Both of my suggestions remain speculative, however, as I am not aware of evidence that would support these hypotheses.

Table 7 below gives an overview of the three extant collections of long discourses, listing the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama discourses as the reference point to the left as "DĀ (Chin)" and to the right of these then their counterparts in the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya and the Sarvāstivāda and/or Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama, referred to as "DN" and "DĀ (Skt)" respectively.[n.4] [12] For DĀ (Skt) 15 my presentation follows Hartmann and Wille 2014: 140. The indication in Hartmann 2004: 126, which relates DĀ (Skt) 15 to DN 28 and DĀ (Skt) to DN 29, reflects the then still unclear correspondences, which a more detailed study of the fragments has in the meantime clarified.

Table 7: Overview of the Collections of Long Discourses

T 1	DN	Skt
DĀ (Chin) 1	DN 14	DĀ (Skt) 5
DĀ (Chin) 2	DN 16 & 17[n.5] The Mahāsudassana-sutta, DN 17, which is a separate discourse in the Dīgha-nikāya, is just a part of the discourses DĀ (Chin) 2 and DĀ (Skt) 6.	DĀ (Skt) 6
DĀ (Chin) 3	DN 19	DĀ (Skt) 14
DĀ (Chin) 4	DN 18	DĀ (Skt) 13
DĀ (Chin) 5	DN 27
DĀ (Chin) 6	DN 26
DĀ (Chin) 7	DN 23
DĀ (Chin) 8	DN 25
DĀ (Chin) 9	DN 33	DĀ (Skt) 3
DĀ (Chin) 10	DN 34	DĀ (Skt) 1
DĀ (Chin) 11
DĀ (Chin) 12
DĀ (Chin) 13	DN 15
DĀ (Chin) 14	DN 21
DĀ (Chin) 15	DN 24	DĀ (Skt) 9
DĀ (Chin) 16	DN 31
DĀ (Chin) 17	DN 29	DĀ (Skt) 15
DĀ (Chin) 18	DN 28	DĀ (Skt) 16
DĀ (Chin) 19	DN 20	DĀ (Skt) 24
DĀ (Chin) 20	DN 3	DĀ (Skt) 35
DĀ (Chin) 21	DN 1	DĀ (Skt) 47
DĀ (Chin) 22	DN 4	DĀ (Skt) 33
DĀ (Chin) 23	DN 5	DĀ (Skt) 34
DĀ (Chin) 24	DN 11	DĀ (Skt) 29
DĀ (Chin) 25	DN 8	DĀ (Skt) 46
DĀ (Chin) 26	DN 13	DĀ (Skt) 45
DĀ (Chin) 27	DN 2	DĀ (Skt) 44
DĀ (Chin) 28	DN 9	DĀ (Skt) 36
DĀ (Chin) 29	DN 12	DĀ (Skt) 27
DĀ (Chin) 30

Table 7 conveys the impression that the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama is somewhat closer to the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya than to the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama. An exception is the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama's adoption of a fourfold division.[n.6] [13] The introduction to the Dīrgha-āgama explicitly draws attention to this fourfold division; cf. T I 1a12: 此《長阿含》四分. The indication by Hartmann and Wille 2014: 139 that "all three versions of the Long Discourses are divided into three sections" and that each of the sections of the Chinese collection contains ten discourses does not seem to be correct. In the Taishō edition the second section begins with the fifth discourse (cf. T I 36b28: 第二分), the third section with the twentieth discourse (cf. T I 82a6: 第三分), and the fourth section then contains just DĀ 30 (cf. T I 114b7: 第四分); cf. also Choi 2012a: 77f and 2012b: 18f (included in the list of works cited in Hartmann and Wille 2014: 154), whose tables reflect the four divisions as they are found in the Chinese collection (although the description of the fourth section as having "12 texts" could be corrected to "12 sections", as this is only a single text).

The impression of closeness finds confirmation when examining the situation from the viewpoint of how the Dīgha-nikāya relates to the other two collections. Out of the forty-seven discourses in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama, twelve are without known parallels anywhere in the four Pāli Nikāyas,[n.7] [14] These are the Arthavistara-sūtra (2nd), the Catuṣpariṣat-sūtra (4th), the Sarveka(?)-sūtra (8th), the Māyājāla-sūtra (18th), the Tridaṇḍi-sūtra (25th), the Piṅgalātreya-sūtra (26th), the first Lohitya-sūtra (27th), the second Maṇḍīśa-sūtra (31st), the Kāraṇavādi-sūtra (37th), the Śruta-sūtra (39th), the Mahalla-sūtra (40th), and the Anyatama-sūtra (41st). and another eleven discourses are not found in the Dīgha-nikāya, but only in other Nikāyas.[n.8] [15] These are: the Apannaka-sūtra (7) ≈ (perhaps) MN 60, the Śalya-sūtra (10) ≈ MN 105, the Bhayabhairava-sūtra (11) ≈ MN 4, the Roma(harṣa)ṇa-sūtra (12) ≈ MN 12, the Pañcatraya-sūtra (17) ≈ MN 102, the Kāmaṭhika-sūtra (19) ≈ MN 95, the Kāyabhāvanā-sūtra (20) ≈ MN 36, the Bodha-sūtra (21) ≈ MN 85, the Śaṃkara-sūtra (22) ≈ MN 100, the Pudgala-sūtra (38) ≈ AN 4.198, and the Jīvaka-sūtra (43) ≈ MN 55. Together these amount to twenty-three discourses not shared with the Dīgha-nikāya, which correspond to 49% of the number of discourses in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama. In the case of the thirty discourses of the Dharmaguptaka collection, three are without counterparts in the Dīgha-nikāya, corresponding to 10% of the number of discourses in the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama. In what follows I examine these three Chinese Dīrgha-āgama discourses without parallels.[n.9] [16] For a study of two discourses without parallels in T 100 cf. Bingenheimer 2013.

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The Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11)

The Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11) and the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12) occur after the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama parallels to the Saṅgīti-sutta (DĀ 9 / DN 33) and the Dasuttara-sutta (DĀ 10 / DN 34). These four discourses are of a similar nature, in that they provide lists of doctrinal items.

The list in the different versions of the Saṅgīti-sutta has as its main structural element the progression from Ones to Tens, under which various numbers of doctrinal items are arranged. The Dasuttara-sutta differs in so far as it invariably assigns ten items to each of the numerical divisions from Ones to Tens. Moreover, these ten items follow a consistently applied thematic pattern for each exposition, from Ones to Tens. In the case of the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama version, the thematic pattern proceeds as follows:

• "greatly successful", 多成,[n.10] [18] For the case of the Ones cf. DĀ 10 at T I 53a2, where for the first quality here and below in the translation of DĀ 11 I follow a variant reading that adds 多 to 成.
• to be "cultivated", 修,
• to be "understood", 覺,
• to be "extinguished", 滅,
• leading to "decline", 退,
• leading to "increase", 增,
• "difficult to comprehend", 難解,
• to be "aroused", 生,
• to be "known", 知,
• to be "realized", 證.

Such a clearly structured discourse is certainly easier to memorize than the listing given in the Saṅgīti-sutta, where the items under each number vary considerably and also do not follow a consistent thematic pattern. Thus the Dasuttara-sutta and its parallels would have been of considerable appeal to disciples who were not part of the circle of professional reciters, but who nevertheless wished to learn by heart such a summary of the teachings.[n.11] [19] For a study of the function of such summaries cf. Anālayo 2014c.

The Discourse Increasing by One proceeds in a similar way to the Dasuttara-sutta, with the difference that, instead of using ten topics, it works through the listing of Ones to Tens based on five topics. In what follows I translate this discourse.[n.12] [20] DĀ 11 at T I 57b25 to 59b8, which has been translated into English by Ichimura 2016: 3–15. In order not to overburden the notes to this translation, I have taken into account only what seemed relevant from the material in the parallels to the preceding discourse in the Dīrgha-āgama (DĀ 10 at T I 52c17 to T I 57b24), found in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda and the Theravāda collections; cf. Mittal 1957 and Schlingloff 1962, as well as DN 34 at DN III 272,1 to DN III 292,7. Thus my survey does not cover another parallel to DĀ 10, preserved individually in Chinese translation: T 13 at T I 233b23 to T I 241c19. A comparative study of DĀ 10 in the light of all its three parallels can be found in de Jong 1966/1979.

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Translation

The Discourse Increasing by One

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was at Sāvatthī in Jeta's Grove, the park [given by] Anāthapiṇḍika, accompanied by a great community of one thousand two hundred and fifty monks.

At that time the Blessed One said to the monks: "I will teach you the sublime Dharma, whose words in the beginning, middle, and end are all true and correct, which is flavoured with meaning and endowed with the purity of the holy life, that is to say, states increasing by one.[n.13] DĀ 11 at T I 57b29: 一增法也, which Ichimura 2016: 3 translates as "the 'teaching comprising ten fivefold groups of doctrines'", which does not accurately reflect the original. Listen and pay proper attention to what I will teach you." Then the monks received the instruction and listened.

1.[n.14] I have added numbering to the translation in order to make it easier to recognize the underlying structure. The Buddha said to the monks: "States increasing by one are [as follows]: one state is greatly successful,[n.15] [21] DĀ 11 at T I 57c2: 一成法, where my translation follows a variant reading that adds 多 before 成. Ichimura 2016: 3 translates this as "the group of doctrinal items that are very useful for religious salvation", which appears to be a gloss instead of a close rendering of the original. one state is to be cultivated, one state is to be understood, one state is to be extinguished, and one state is to be realized.

1.1 "What one state is greatly successful? It is: not neglecting wholesome states.

1.2 "What one state is to be cultivated? It is: constant mindfulness of one's own body.

1.3 "What one state is to be understood? It is: being contacted by the influxes.[n.16] DĀ 11 at T I 57c5: 有漏觸, which Ichimura 2016: 3 translates as "the fact of contact of the [sense] faculties with their respective objects under the influence of defilement." This also seems to be a gloss rather than a translation.

1.4 "What one state is to be extinguished? It is: the conceit 'I am'.

1.5 "What one state is to be realized? It is: the unimpeded liberation of the mind.[n.17] [22] DĀ 11 at T I 57c6: 無礙心解脫, translated by Ichimura 2016: 4 as the "deliverance of the mind that is unshakeable or undisturbed toward the realm that is beyond the influence of defilements", which again is more of a gloss than a translation. Regarding the expression 無礙心解脫 in DĀ 10, de Jong 1966/1979: 255 queries whether this represents "asaṅgā cetovimuktiḥ?" The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 have akopyā cetovimuktiḥ or akuppā cetovimutti; cf. Mittal 1957: 55 (§i.10) and DN 34 at DN III 273,13.

2. "Again, two states are greatly successful, two states are to be cultivated, two states are to be understood, two states are to be extinguished, and two states are to be realized.

2.1 "What two states are greatly successful? They are: knowing shame and knowing fear of wrongdoing.[n.18] [23] DĀ 11 at T I 57c8: 知慚, 知愧, which Ichimura 2016: 4 translates as "knowing shame upon self-reflection and knowing shame before others", where the reference to self-reflection and to others are not found in the original. The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 instead list mindfulness and clear comprehension; cf. Mittal 1957: 56 (§ii.1) and DN 34 at DN III 273,22. The qualities of shame and fear of wrongdoing do occur elsewhere in the Sanskrit fragment version, where they are found instead under the heading of two states that lead to distinction; cf. Mittal 1957: 56 (§ii.6).

2.2 "What two states are to be cultivated? They are: tranquillity and insight.

2.3 "What two states are to be understood? They are: name and form.[n.19] DĀ 11 at T I 57c9: 名與色, which Ichimura 2016: 4 translates as "the (noetic) category of name, i.e. the four mental skandhas, and the (corporeal) category of form, i.e., the one material skandha." Besides adding material not found in the original, this is also not correct, since name as part of name-and-form does not necessarily correspond to the four mental aggregates; cf. Anālayo 2011b: 70f.

2.4 "What two states are to be extinguished? They are: ignorance and craving for existence.[n.20] DĀ 11 at T I 57c9 here has 無明 and for the next item the corresponding 明, which in the translation by Ichimura 2016: 4 become "ignorance of the Four Noble Truths" and "acquisition of insight on (sic) the Four Noble Truths".

2.5 "What two states are to be realized? They are: knowledge and liberation.

3. "Again, three states are greatly successful, three states are to be cultivated, three states are to be understood, three states are to be extinguished, and three states are to be realized.

3.1 "What three states are greatly successful? The first is associating with good friends, the second is [lending] an ear to hear the Dharma being expounded, and the third is becoming accomplished in the Dharma [in accordance with] the Dharma.[n.21] [24] The third state mentioned in the Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10 is rather "thorough attention", yoniśo manasikāraḥ; cf. Mittal 1957: 58 (§iii.1).

3.2 "What three states are to be cultivated? They are the three concentrations: concentration on emptiness, concentration on signlessness,[n.22] [25] Adopting the variant 相 instead of 想; on this type of variation cf. Anālayo 2011b: 274f note 54. and concentration on non-activity.[n.23] [26] DĀ 11 at T I 57c13: 空三昧, 無想三昧, 無作三, which in the translation by Ichimura 2016: 4 become: "first, the concentration on the emptiness of the self and things attributed to it; second, the concentration on signlessness or the nondifferentiation of things; and third, the concentration on the objectless or goal-free state of existence." The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 list another set of three concentrations: with vitarka/vitakka and vicāra, without vitarka/vitakka but still with vicāra, and without either; cf. Mittal 1957: 58 (§iii.2) and DN 34 at DN III 274,25. On the significance of these two absorption factors cf., e.g., Cousins 1992 and Anālayo 2014c: 79–84.

3.3 "What three states are to be understood? They are the three feelings: painful feeling, pleasant feeling, and neutral feeling.[n.24] [27] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10 lists the three types of becoming, bhava; cf. Mittal 1957: 58 (§iii.3).

3.4 "What three states are to be extinguished? They are the three cravings: craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, and craving for non-existence.[n.25] [28] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10 has craving for immateriality as its third; cf. Mittal 1957: 59 (§iii.4). This reflects a recurrent difference, where references in Dharmaguptaka and Theravāda discourses to the three types of craving, with non-existence as the third, are not found in this way in Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda counterparts; cf. below p. 519f.

3.5 "What three states are to be realized? They are the three knowledges: the knowledge of recollection of past lives, the knowledge of the divine eye, and the knowledge of the destruction of the influxes.[n.26] [29] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10 qualifies these three as being beyond training, aśaikṣa; cf. Mittal 1957: 60 (§iii.10).

4. "Again, four states are greatly successful, four states are to be cultivated, four states are to be understood, four states are to be extinguished, and four states are to be realized.

4.1 "What four states are greatly successful? The first is dwelling in the middle country, the second is associating with good friends, the third is self-restraint, and the fourth is having planted wholesome roots in the past.[n.27] [30] Adopting the variant 植 instead of 殖.

4.2 "What four states are to be cultivated? One dwells in the four establishments of mindfulness. A monk contemplates the body as a body internally, diligently without negligence, with recollective mindfulness that is not lost, abandoning lust and discontent for the world; he contemplates the body as a body externally, diligently without remiss, with recollective mindfulness that is not lost, abandoning lust and discontent for the world; he contemplates the body as a body internally and externally, diligently without remiss, with recollective mindfulness that is not lost, abandoning lust and discontent for the world. Contemplating feeling … mind … and dharmas is also like this.[n.28] [31] DĀ 11 at T I 57c23: 受, 意, 法觀亦復如是, which in the translation by Ichimura 2016: 5 becomes: "It is the same with the second application: observing one's sense perceptions; the third application, observing one's mind or intellect; and the fourth application, observing one's psychophysical elements (skandhas)." The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 do not bring in the distinction between internal and external; cf. Mittal 1957: 61 (§iv.2) and DN 34 at DN III 276,10.

4.3 "What four states are to be understood? They are the four nutriments: the nutriment of morsels [of edible food], the nutriment of contact, [n.29] DĀ 11 at T I 57c24: 觸食, for which Ichimura 2016: 5 gives "nutrition ingested by contact through touch." This involves a misunderstanding, as contact is reckoned a nutriment in the sense of providing the raw data for sense experience, not some form of actual nutrition. the nutriment of [intentional] thought, and the nutriment of consciousness.

4.4 "What four states are to be extinguished? They are the four clingings: clinging to sensual pleasures, clinging to a self, clinging to precepts,[n.30] DĀ 11 at T I 57c25: 戒受, for which Ichimura 2016: 5f gives "attachment to the vow of precepts belonging to other schools". Besides not reflecting the original, this is also not correct, as such clinging can take place in relation to the rules of one's own tradition; cf. Anālayo 2003: 220 note 12. and clinging to views.[n.31] [32] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 276,19, lists the four floods (ogha) of sensuality, becoming, views, and ignorance.

4.5 "What four states are to be realized? They are the four fruits of recluseship: the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of oncereturn, the fruit of non-return, and the fruit of arahantship.[n.32] [33] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10, Mittal 1957: 64f (§iv.10), instead mentions things to be realized directly (literally "with the body") through recollection, through the [divine] eye, and through wisdom. A similar set, although in a different sequence, can be found in the Pāli parallel to DĀ 9, DN 33 at DN III 230,7, according to which recollection of past lives is to be realized through recollection, the passing away and re-arising (of living beings) is to be realized through the [divine] eye, the eight liberations are to be realized directly, and the destruction of the influxes is to be realized through wisdom.

5. "Again, five states are greatly successful, five states are to be cultivated, five states are to be understood, five states are to be extinguished, and five states are to be realized.

5.1 "What five states are greatly successful? They are the five limbs of exertion.[n.33] [34] DĀ 11 at T I 57c29: 五滅盡支 (with 枝 as a variant for 支), a rendering which would go back to an original prahāṇa instead of pradhāna; cf. above p. 376 note 63. The first is faith in the Buddha, the Tathāgata, the arahant, who is endowed with ten epithets; the second is being without illness, with a body that is constantly at ease; the third is being honest without crookedness, truly advancing on the Tathāgata's path to Nirvāṇa; the fourth is having a collected mind that is not confused, [being able] to recite without forgetfulness; the fifth is being skilled in contemplating the rise and fall of phenomena, and through noble practice extinguishing the roots of dukkha.

5.2 "What five states are to be cultivated? They are the five faculties: the faculty of faith, the faculty of energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, and the faculty of wisdom.[n.34] [35] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 277,25, instead lists fivefold right concentration.

5.3 "What five states are to be understood? They are the five aggregates of clinging: the bodily form aggregate of clinging, the feeling … perception … formations … and the consciousness aggregate of clinging.

5.4 "What five states are to be extinguished? They are the five hindrances: the hindrance of lustful desire, the hindrance of ill will, the hindrance of sloth-and-torpor, the hindrance of restlessness-and-worry,[n.35] [36] DĀ 11 at T I 58a7: 掉戱蓋, where the second character has rather the sense of "frivolity". and the hindrance of doubt.

5.5 "What five states are to be realized? They are the five groups that are beyond training: the group of morality beyond training, the group of concentration beyond training, the group of wisdom beyond training, the group of liberation beyond training, and the group of knowledge and vision of liberation beyond training.[n.36] [37] The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 do not qualify these five as being beyond training; cf. Mittal 1957: 74 (§v.10) and DN 34 at DN III 279,14. The Sanskrit fragment version does, however, qualify them as "noble".

6. "Again, six states are greatly successful, six states are to be cultivated, six states are to be understood, six states are to be extinguished, and six states are to be realized.

6.1 "What six states are greatly successful? They are the six principles of respect. Supposing a monk cultivates the six principles of respect, which should be esteemed and respected, for being in harmony with the community and without dispute, not different from practising alone. What are the six? Thus a monk constantly performs bodily acts with mettā, extending it to those who cultivate the holy life,[n.37] DĀ 11 at T I 58a13: 及修梵行; the translation by Ichimura 2016: 7 as "pays respect toward those who uphold the practice of austerity", adds an unwarranted paying of respect and does not recognize that 梵行 renders brahmacārin. being established in a mental attitude of affectionate goodwill – this is called a principle of respect, which should be esteemed and respected, for being in harmony with the community and without dispute, not different from practising alone.

"Again, a monk speaks with mettā … "[Again], he thinks with mettā …[n.38] At this juncture Ichimura 2016: 7 adds "a bhikṣu may obtain material support on the basis of the doctrinal teaching", which does not correspond to anything in the Chinese original. "[Again], he shares with others his own supplies, up to what has remained in his bowl, without keeping it back from them …

"Again, a monk does not violate the precepts that are practised by the noble ones, does not break them and is without a stain [in this respect], as praised by the wise, being well endowed with the upholding of the precepts …[n.39] Ichimura 2016: 7 adds "and realizes the state of mental concentration", which does not correspond to anything in the Chinese original.

"[Again], he is accomplished in right view, which is noble and transcending, and which evenly eradicates dukkha, extending [this mental attitude] to all [companions] in the holy life – this is called a principle of respect, which should be esteemed and respected, for being in harmony with the community and without dispute, not different from practising alone.

6.2 "What six states are to be cultivated? They are the six recollections: recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dharma, recollection of the Community, recollection of morality, recollection of charity, and recollection of devas.[n.40] [38] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10, Mittal 1957: 76 (§vi.2), instead speaks of remaining balanced with what is experienced through the six senses. A similar quality can be found in the Pāli parallel to DĀ 9, DN 33 at DN III 250,14.

6.3 "What six states are to be understood? They are the six internal spheres: the eye sphere, the ear sphere, the nose sphere, the tongue sphere, the body sphere, and the mind sphere.

6.4 "What six states are to be extinguished? They are the six cravings:[n.41] DĀ 11 at T I 58a23: 六愛, translated by Ichimura 2016: 8 as "the six kinds of craving desire that are directed to external bases of cognition respectively", most of which has no basis in the Chinese. craving for forms, craving for sounds, craving for odours, craving for tastes, craving for tangibles, and craving for mental objects.

6.5 "What six states are to be realized? They are the six higher knowledges: the first is the higher knowledge of supernormal abilities, the second is the higher knowledge of the divine ear, the third is the higher knowledge of knowing the minds of others, the fourth is the higher knowledge of recollecting past lives, the fifth is the higher knowledge of the divine eye, and the sixth is the higher knowledge of the eradication of the influxes.

7. "Again, seven states are greatly successful, seven states are to be cultivated, seven states are to be understood, seven states are to be extinguished, and seven states are to be realized.

7.1 "What seven states are greatly successful? They are the seven assets: the asset of faith, the asset of morality, the asset of shame, the asset of fear of wrongdoing, the asset of learning, the asset of charity, and the asset of wisdom.[n.42] [39] Adopting the variant 慧 instead of 惠. These are the seven assets.

7.2 "What seven states are to be cultivated? They are: the seven awakening factors. Here a monk cultivates the awakening factor of mindfulness in dependence on dispassion, in dependence on cessation, and in dependence on seclusion; he cultivates the [awakening factor] of [investigation of] phenomena … he cultivates the [awakening factor] of energy … he cultivates the [awakening factor] of joy … he cultivates the [awakening factor] of tranquillity … he cultivates the [awakening factor] of concentration … he cultivates the [awakening factor] of equanimity in dependence on dispassion, in dependence on cessation, and in dependence on seclusion.[n.43] [40] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 282,7, simply lists the seven awakening factors, without indicating on what their cultivation depends (which usually comprises four aspects, with seclusion in first place and the fourth aspect then being that the awakening factor culminates in letting go). The Sanskrit fragments edited in Mittal 1957 have not preserved this part of the discourse.

7.3 "What seven states are to be understood? They are: the seven stations of consciousness. Suppose living beings are of different body and different perception, [such as some] devas and humans – this is the first station of consciousness.

"Again, there are living beings of different body but of the same perception, such as the ⟨Brahmā devas⟩ at the time of first being born – this is the second station of consciousness.[n.44] [41] DĀ 11 at T I 58b5: 梵光音天最初生時是, 是二識住, which in the translation by Ichimura 2016: 9 becomes: "the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is transmitted by light instead of sound. This is the second abode of consciousness", where the part on communication by light is not found in the original. His rendering of the next station of consciousness as: "when sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is Ābhāsvara Heaven", results in attributing two stations of consciousness to the same heavenly realm. My translation here and below (in relation to the nine states to be understood) is based on emending 梵光音天 to 梵天, on the assumption that the reading for the next station of consciousness, 光音天, has in the course of transmission or translation influenced the formulation for this station of consciousness. The use of 梵光音天 is a recurrent pattern in descriptions of the stations of consciousness in the Dīrgha-āgama; cf. also Behrsing 1930: 51 note 92.

"Again, there are living beings of the same body and different perception, such as the Ābhassara devas – this is the third station of consciousness.

"Again, there are living beings of the same body and the same perception, such as the Subhakiṇṇa devas – this is the fourth station of consciousness.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of [infinite] space – this is the fifth station of consciousness.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of [infinite] consciousness – this is the sixth station of consciousness.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of nothingness – this is the seventh station of consciousness.

7.4 "What seven states are to be extinguished? They are the states of the seven underlying tendencies: the underlying tendency to craving for sensual pleasures, the underlying tendency to craving for becoming, the underlying tendency to views, the underlying tendency to conceit, the underlying tendency to resistance, the underlying tendency to ignorance, and the underlying tendency to doubt.[n.45] [42] The order of enumeration differs from the standard presentation of the underlying tendencies in the Pāli discourses which, e.g., in the case of DN 24 at DN III 282,17, proceeds as follows: sensual desire (1), resistance (2), view (3), doubt (4), conceit (5), desire for becoming (6), and ignorance (7).

7.5 "What seven states are to be realized? They are: the seven powers of one who has eradicated the influxes. Here a monk who has eradicated the influxes has understood and seen as it really is the entirety of dukkha, its arising, its cessation, its gratification,[n.46] [43] My translation follows an emendation in the CBETA edition of 昧 to 味. its danger, and the escape [from it].

"He contemplates sensual pleasures as being like a fiery pit or like a knife or sword; knowing sensual pleasures and seeing sensual pleasures, he does not lust for sensual pleasures and his mind does not dwell in sensual pleasures.[n.47] DĀ 11 at T I 58b14: 知欲見欲, 不貪於欲, 心不住欲, translated by Ichimura 2016: 9 as "though he knows the arising of desire and sees it, he is not attached to it nor does he abide in it." The minor lack of accuracy in the translation is nevertheless problematic in so far as it risks giving the misleading impression that the original text refers to an arahant as one who still experiences the arising of sensual desire, but does so just without being attached to it. Herein having further well examined them and having gained knowledge as it really is, vision as it really is, he does not give rise to sensual lust in the world, to evil and unwholesome states, and he is without influxes.

"He cultivates the four establishments of mindfulness, cultivating them much and practising them much … the five faculties … the five powers … the seven awakening factors … the noble eightfold path, cultivating them much and practising them much.[n.48] [44] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 284,3, does not mention the five powers, but only the five faculties; cf. also Anālayo 2014c: 52. Its additional quality (third) then is being inclined to and intent on seclusion, viveka. In relation to the first in this set, DN 34 at DN III 283,15 speaks of having seen the impermanent nature of all formations. Whereas the Sanskrit fragments edited in Mittal 1957 have not preserved this part of the discourse, a Sanskrit fragment parallel to this item can be found in fragment Or 15009/164 (Hoernle 149/185), Hartmann 1991: 135f (§62) and Melzer 2009: 208.

8. "Again, eight states are greatly successful, eight states are to be cultivated, eight states are to be understood, eight states are to be extinguished, and eight states are to be realized.

8.1 "What eight states are greatly successful? They are: the eight causes and conditions for gaining the wisdom in the holy life that has not yet been gained, and for increasing the wisdom in the holy life that has been gained. What are the eight?

"In this way a monk dwells in dependence on the Blessed One, or in dependence on a senior teacher, or in dependence on a wise companion in the holy life, and having affection and esteem [for them] he arouses a mental attitude of shame and fear of wrongdoing – this is the first cause and condition for gaining the wisdom in the holy life that has not yet been gained, and for increasing the wisdom in the holy life that has been gained.

"Again, dwelling in dependence on the Blessed One … at the proper time he asks questions: 'What is the meaning of this teaching? What is its gist?' The Blessed One discloses to him its deep meaning – this is the second cause and condition …[n.49] [45] Adopting the variant 世尊 instead of 尊長.

Since he has heard the teaching, his body and mind are happy and calm – this is the third cause and condition …[n.50] [46] The parallels to DĀ 10 speak of a twofold withdrawal (vyapakarṣa/vūpakāsa) by body and mind; cf. Mittal 1957: 84 (§viii.1.3) and DN 34 at DN III 285,13.

"He does not join various unprofitable discussions which obstruct the path. When he arrives among the community, either he teaches the Dharma himself or he invites another to teach it; yet he also does not neglect noble silence – this is the fourth cause and condition …[n.51] [47] The fourth condition in the Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 285,16, instead mentions being virtuous and restrained by the precepts.

"He is widely learned, retaining without loss the deep teachings which are good in the beginning, middle, and end, which are flavoured with meaning and truth, with which the holy life is endowed; what he has heard enters his mind and his view does not fluctuate – this is the fifth cause and condition …

"He cultivates energy for the cessation of unwholesome activities and the daily increase of wholesome activities, he makes an effort and keeps firm, does not neglect these [wholesome] states – this is the sixth cause and condition …

"Again, he knows the rise and fall of phenomena with the wisdom aroused by noble ones, enabling the complete eradication of dukkha – this is the seventh cause and condition …[n.52] [48] Adopting the variant 起 instead of 趣.

"Again, he contemplates the five aggregates of clinging, the mark of their arising and the mark of their cessation:[n.53] [49] Adopting the variant 相 instead of 想; cf. above p. 401 note 22. this is bodily form, this is the arising of bodily form, and this is the cessation of bodily form; this is feeling … perception … formations … consciousness, this is the arising of consciousness, and this is the cessation of consciousness – this is the eighth cause and condition for gaining the wisdom in the holy life that has not yet been gained, and for increasing the wisdom in the holy life that has been gained.

8.2 "What eight states are to be cultivated? They are the [factors of the] noble eightfold path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

8.3 "What eight states are to be understood? They are the eight worldly conditions: gain and loss, infamy and fame, praise and blame, pain and happiness.

8.4 "What eight states are to be extinguished? They are the eight [types of] wrongness: wrong view, wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concentration.

8.5 "What eight states are to be realized? They are the eight liberations: having form one contemplates forms – this is the first liberation. Not perceiving form internally one contemplates forms externally – this is the second liberation.[n.54] [50] My translation follows an emendation in the CBETA edition of 有 to 無. The liberation by purity – this is the third liberation.[n.55] [51] The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 speak of the liberation by beauty, śubhavimokṣa, or else of being determined on beauty, subhan't' eva adhimutto; cf. Mittal 1957: 93 (§viii.7) (where this is the seventh in the tenfold exposition of Eights and thus one of eight things that are difficult to penetrate; cf. also Pauly 1957: 290) and DN 34 at DN III 288,2 (to be supplemented from DN III 262,1). Surpassing perceptions of form, with the disappearing of perceptions of resistance one dwells in the sphere of [infinite] space – this is the fourth liberation. Surpassing the sphere of [infinite] space, one dwells in the sphere of [infinite] consciousness – this is the fifth liberation. Surpassing the sphere of [infinite] consciousness, one dwells in the sphere of nothingness – this is the sixth liberation. Surpassing the sphere of nothingness, one dwells in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception – this is the seventh liberation. Surpassing the sphere of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, one dwells in the cessation of perception and knowing – this is the eighth liberation.[n.56] Ichimura 2016: 12 adds "which is equivalent to the third saintly state of anāgāmin", which is not found in the Chinese original.

9. "Again, nine states are greatly successful, nine states are to be cultivated, nine states are to be understood, nine states are to be extinguished, and nine states are to be realized.

9.1 "What nine states are greatly successful? They are the states of the nine factors of exertion for purification: the factor of exertion for purification of morality, the factor of exertion for purification of the mind, the factor of exertion for purification of view, the factor of exertion for purification by surmounting doubt, the factor of exertion for purification by distinguishing [what is the path from what is not the path], the factor of exertion for purification by [knowledge and vision of] the path, the factor of exertion for purification by elimination, the factor of exertion for purification by dispassion, and the factor of exertion for purification by liberation.[n.57] [52] The Indic language parallels to DĀ 10 have as the fifth to eighth factors in their list: 5) knowledge and vision of what is the path and what is not the path, 6) knowledge and vision of the path, 7) knowledge and vision, 8) wisdom; cf. Schlingloff 1962: 18 (§ix.1) and DN 34 at DN III 288,20 (where this is the second set in the list of Nines and thus describes the nine things that are to be cultivated). Although in the case of the fifth and sixth factors it is possible that the description in DĀ 11 has preserved part of a similar expression (hence my supplementations), in the case of the seventh and eighth factors the original, on which the translation is based, must have been different.

9.2 "What nine states are to be cultivated? They are the nine states that are a root of joy: the first is joy [itself], the second is affection, the third is delight, the fourth is happiness, the fifth is concentration, the sixth is knowledge as it really is, the seventh is relinquishing, the eighth is dispassion, and the ninth is liberation.[n.58] [53] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 288,8, has a similar list as its first quality, with the difference that it indicates how each quality leads on to the next. As already noted by Schlingloff 1962: 18 note 2, the same is also the case for a similar listing in the Mahāvyutpatti; cf. Mvy 1585–1595, Sakaki 1926: 127f.

9.3 "What nine states are to be understood? They are: the nine abodes of living beings. There are living beings of different body and different perception, such as some devas and humans – this is the first abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings of different body but of the same perception, such as the ⟨Brahmā devas⟩ at the time of first being born – this is the second abode of living beings.[n.59] Cf. above p. 408 note 44.

"Again, there are living beings of the same body and different perception, such as the Ābhassara devas – this is the third abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings of the same body and the same perception, such as the Subhakiṇṇa devas – this is the fourth abode of living beings.

"[Again, there are living beings] without perception, who do not feel or know anything, such as the unconscious devas – this is the fifth abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of [infinite] space – this is the sixth abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of [infinite] consciousness – this is the seventh abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of nothingness – this is the eighth abode of living beings.

"Again, there are living beings established in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception – this is the ninth abode of living beings.

9.4 "What nine states are to be extinguished? They are the nine [states] that are rooted in craving: in dependence on craving there is searching, in dependence on searching there is gain, in dependence on gain there is use, in dependence on use there is desire, in dependence on desire there is attachment, in dependence on attachment there is jealousy, in dependence on jealousy there is guarding, and in dependence on guarding there is protection.[n.60] [54] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 289,6, indicates that such protection leads to the taking up of weapons, quarrelling, and falsehood.

9.5 "What nine states are to be realized? They are: the nine eradications. Entering the first absorption, the thorn of sound ceases.[n.61] [55] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 290,6 (to be supplemented from DN III 266,6), instead highlights that with the attainment of the first absorption, perceptions of sensuality cease. That sound is a thorn for the first absorption is stated elsewhere in the Pāli discourses; cf. AN 10.72 at AN V 135,1 (the same position is also taken in its parallel MĀ 84 at T I 561a7). Whereas the Sanskrit fragments edited in Mittal 1957 have not preserved this part of the discourse, a Sanskrit fragment parallel to this item can be found in Or 15009/542 (Hoernle 149/Add.2), Hartmann 1991: 140 (§67). Entering the second absorption, the thorn of [directed] awareness and [sustained] contemplation ceases. Entering the third absorption, the thorn of rapture ceases. Entering the fourth absorption, the thorn of breathing in and out ceases. Entering the sphere of [infinite] space,[n.62] Ichimura 2016: 13 adds that this is the "initial formless state of concentration", which has no basis in the Chinese. the thorn of the perception of form ceases. Entering the sphere of [infinite] consciousness, the thorn of the perception of space ceases. Entering the sphere of nothingness, the thorn of the perception of consciousness ceases.[n.63] [56] Here and with the next two items, my translation follows an emendation in the CBETA edition of 剌 to 刺, in keeping with the character used earlier. Entering the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, the thorn of the perception of nothingness ceases. Entering the concentration on cessation, the thorn of perception and feeling ceases.

10. "Again, ten states are greatly successful, ten states are to be cultivated, ten states are to be understood, ten states are to be extinguished, and ten states are to be realized.

10.1 "What ten states are greatly successful? They are: the ten states of protection.[n.64] DĀ 11 at T I 59a13: 十救法, which in the translation by Ichimura 2016: 14 become "ten kinds of refuge for religious salvation". The first is when a monk is endowed with the two hundred and fifty precepts and endowed with dignified deportment, seeing a minor offence arouses in him great trepidation, he evenly trains in morality with a mind that does not incline to wrongness.

"The second is gaining a good friend. "The third is speaking what is balanced and correct, and having much patience.[n.65] DĀ 11 at T I 59a16: 堪忍, which Ichimura 2016: 14 understands to imply that "he is able to understand the meanings beyond words".

"The fourth is seeking well [to learn] the good Dharma and sharing it [with others] without stinginess.

"The fifth is to assist his companions in the holy life in what they have to arrange without becoming weary, being able to do what is difficult to do, and to teach others in doing it.

"The sixth is being learned, able to retain what has been heard without ever forgetting it.

"The seventh is being energetic in eradicating unwholesome states and increasing wholesome states.

"The eighth is being oneself constantly with undivided mindfulness, without being [carried away] by different perceptions, [able] to recall former good activities as if they were in front of one's eyes.

"The ninth is being accomplished in wisdom, contemplating the arising and cessation of states, and through noble discipline abandoning the root of dukkha.

"The tenth is delighting in seclusion, giving attention with undivided mindfulness and being without restlessness between meditations.[n.66] [57] The ten states of protection in the Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 266,27, are being 1) morally restrained, 2) learned, 3) a good friend, 4) gentle and patient, 5) capable at assisting companions in the holy life, 6) delighted by the Dharma, 7) contented, 8) energetic, 9) mindful, and 10) wise. The Sanskrit fragment parallel in Schlingloff 1962: 23f (§x.1), which has not preserved the first state, lists: 2) morally restrained, 3) a good friend, 4) secluded, 5) energetic, 6) mindful, 7) wise, 8) gentle, 9) delighted by the Dharma, and 10) capable at assisting companions in the holy life.

10.2 "What ten states are to be cultivated? They are the ten right practices: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, right liberation, and right knowledge.[n.67] [58] The Pāli parallel to DĀ 10, DN 34 at DN III 290,16, presents the ten spheres of totality, kasiṇāyatana, as what should be cultivated. Regarding the positioning and implications of right knowledge cf. Bucknell 1984: 9f, 15, and 31, and Anālayo 2011b: 663 note 114.

10.3 "What ten states are to be understood? They are the ten physical spheres: the sphere of the eye, the sphere of the ear, the sphere of the nose, the sphere of the tongue, the sphere of the body, the sphere of forms, the sphere of sounds, the sphere of odours, the sphere of tastes, and the sphere of tangibles.

10.4 "What ten states are to be extinguished? They are the ten wrong practices: wrong view, wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration, wrong liberation, and wrong knowledge.[n.68] [59] The Sanskrit fragment parallel to DĀ 10, Schlingloff 1962: 26 (§x.4), lists the five hindrances in a twofold manner (cf. also SHT VII 1646A, Bechert and Wille 1995: 60; identified by M. Schmidt in Bechert and Wille 2004: 423). Similar presentations, where a doubling of the five hindrances results in ten, can be found in SN 46.52 at SN V 110,1 and its parallels SĀ 713 at T II 191b11 and D 4094 ju 60a1 or Q 5595 tu 66a2.

10.5 "What ten states are to be realized? They are the ten states beyond training: the right view beyond training, the right intention … right speech … right action … right livelihood … right effort … right mindfulness … right concentration … right liberation … and right knowledge [beyond training].

"Monks, these are called states increasing by one. Now having taught you the Dharma in this way, as the Tathāgata I have done for my disciples what is appropriate, with which you are now all completely familiar. I have taught you out of kindness and concern. You should also be diligent and receive it respectfully.

"Monks, you should dwell in seclusion, at the root of trees, in empty places, energetically sit in meditation. Do not be negligent yourselves. If you do not exert yourselves now, what benefit will it be later to harbour regrets? This is my injunction, uphold it diligently."

At that time the monks, hearing what the Buddha had said, were delighted and received it respectfully.

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Study

Overall the Discourse Increasing by One stays well within the doctrinal world of early Buddhist thought. That is, even though this discourse does not have a known parallel, in doctrinal terms nothing seems to mark it off as substantially late.

Perhaps the only difference worth explicit mention is in regard to the "nine factors of exertion for purification". The rendering of some factors here suggests that the Indic original used for the translation of the Dīrgha-āgama into Chinese differed from the terms used in the corresponding schemes found in the Daśottara-sūtra of the Sarvāstivāda and/or Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama and in the Dasuttara-sutta of the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya.[n.69] [60] Cf. above p. 413 note 57.

Elsewhere I have argued that the scheme of seven purifications, which is part of this ninefold set, did originally not play as central a role in Buddhist thought as it eventually acquired in the Theravāda tradition, due to forming the basic scaffolding of the Visuddhimagga.[n.70] [61] Anālayo 2012g: 70–77 and below p. 507 note 14. Thus it would not be surprising if some variation in terminology occurred in what would not have been considered to be a scheme of central doctrinal importance, at least in the early stages of transmission.

The presentation in the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11) corresponds exactly to the version of the Dasuttara-sutta in the Dīrgha-āgama (DĀ 10) for the five topics they both cover:

• "greatly successful", (1st of DĀ 10 = 1st of DĀ 11),
• to be "cultivated", (2nd of DĀ 10 = 2nd of DĀ 11),
• to be "understood", (3rd of DĀ 10 = 3rd of DĀ 11),
• to be "extinguished", (4th of DĀ 10 = 4th of DĀ 11),
• to be "realized", (10th of DĀ 10 = 5th of DĀ 11).

In other words, the main difference between the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11) and the Dharmaguptaka version of the Dasuttara-sutta is their compass. The former takes up five topics, the latter takes up ten that include the former five. In principle, it would be possible that an earlier presentation of five topics was later expanded to ten, and this expansion became a separate discourse, or else that the five topics were extracted from an earlier presentation of ten topics to form a separate discourse.

Since the mode of presentation by way of ten topics recurs in the Sarvāstivāda and/or Mūlasarvāstivāda Daśottara-sūtra and in the Dasuttara-sutta of the Theravāda tradition, as well as in an individually translated Chinese version, it seems safe to conclude that this form of presentation is the earlier one, given that it is shared by different transmission lineages. From this it would follow that the Discourse Increasing by One is an extract from this tenfold presentation, achieved by leaving out five topics:

• leading to "decline",
• leading to "increase",
• "difficult to comprehend",
• to be "aroused",
• to be "known".

Such an abridgement would make it easier to memorize the list and thus making is easier for those outside of the circle of professional reciters to commit to memory a summary of the teachings.

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The Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12)

Similarly to the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11), the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12), which I will translate in the next chapter, works its way through a list of doctrinal items based on the same pattern of proceeding from Ones to Tens. It differs by adopting a threefold scheme, which distinguishes between:

• what leads towards a bad destiny, 趣/向惡趣,
• what leads towards a good destiny, 趣/向善趣,
• what leads towards Nirvāṇa, 趣/向涅槃.

Like the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11), the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12) appears to be based on the Dīrgha-āgama version of the Dasuttara-sutta (DĀ 10). Thus the exposition of what "should be cultivated" in this Dasuttara-sutta recurs in the Discourse on the Three Groups under the heading of what leads towards Nirvāṇa. This is the case for each of the sets, from the Ones to the Tens. The exposition of what leads to either a bad destiny or else a good one in the Discourse on the Three Groups corresponds to what leads to decline or else to increase according to this Dasuttara-sutta in the case of the Twos, Threes, Sixes, Nines, and Tens. Moreover, in the case of the Eights the states that lead to a bad destiny in the Discourse on the Three Groups correspond to what should be "extinguished" according to the Dīrgha-āgama version of the Dasuttara-sutta.

In this way, whereas the Discourse Increasing by One in its entirety appears to be simply a straightforward extract from this Dasuttara-sutta, the Discourse on the Three Groups is based on such an extract in the case of its third category, regarding what leads towards Nirvāṇa. This appears to be the nucleus out of which the Discourse on the Three Groups evolved, that is, by taking over the entire listing of states to be cultivated from the Dīrgha-āgama version of the Dasuttara-sutta. The other two categories – what leads towards a bad or a good destiny – are only in part inspired by this discourse.

The following scenario emerges: at an earlier point in the evolution of what was to become the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama, the collection would have had versions of the Saṅgīti-sutta and the Dasuttara-sutta, similarly to the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya and the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama collections. The appeal of such summaries of the Dharma would then have led to the emergence of an abbreviated version of the Dasuttara-sutta in the form of the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11).[n.71] [63] It is noteworthy that a discourse with the same title is mentioned in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya account of the first saṅgīti, T 1421 at T XXII 191a19: 增 一經, followed by references to the 增十經 and the 僧祇陀經, counterparts to the Dasuttara-sutta and the Saṅgīti-sutta. This conveys the impression that a similar discourse was also part of the Mahīśāsaka Dīrgha-āgama. In a personal communication, Matsuda Kazunobu told me that this reference in T 1421 has already been noted in Karashima et al. 2000: 14, which due to my ignorance of Japanese I had not been able to consult when writing the present paper. The same tendency would have inspired the reciters to develop an even shorter summary of the teachings in the form of the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12).

In comparison to the development that in this way can be discerned in the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama collection, the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama reciters pursued a somewhat different course, resulting in the Arthavistara-sūtra.[n.72] [64] The discourse has been preserved in Sanskrit fragments, a Tibetan translation, and two Chinese translations: Arthavistara-sūtra, Hartmann 1991: 319– 336; ’phags pa don rgyas pa zhes bya ba’i chos kyi rnam grangs, D 318 sa 188a7 to 193b7 or Q 984 shu 197b6 to 203a5; [佛說]廣義法門經, T 97 at T I 919b22 to 922a23, and [佛說]普法義經, T 98 at T I 922b5 to 924c28. This discourse is found in their Dīrgha-āgama between the Daśottara-sūtra and the Saṅgīti-sūtra. The Arthavistara-sūtra, attributed to Śāriputra, no longer follows a numerical order in its presentation. Instead, the items in its list proceed thematically, following a trajectory that builds up to the attainment of full liberation and freedom from rebirth. This trajectory of building up towards liberation is also evident in the schemes employed in the Dasuttara-sutta and its parallels as well as in the two discourses found only in the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama (the Discourse Increasing by One and the Discourse on the Three Groups). What appears to be a specific line of development taken in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda collection is that with the Arthavistara-sūtra a numerical scheme is no longer evident. This shows that attempts to construct a summary survey of central aspects of the Dharma were not confined to numerical listings.

In this way, whereas the Saṅgīti-sutta and the Dasuttara-sutta and their parallels reflect the shared heritage of the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda, and Theravāda traditions, the basic tendency underlying these two discourses has found different modes of expression in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama and the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama. These different modes point to the same need to provide the disciples of the Buddha with a succinct summary of the Dharma, a map to be memorized, contemplated, and recited as a way of ensuring proper understanding of the teachings and expressing communal harmony through group recitation.[n.73] [65] For a more detailed discussion of the function of such lists cf. Anālayo 2014c.

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The Discourse on a Record of the World (DĀ 30)

The fourth division of the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama contains just a single discourse. This discourse, the Discourse on a Record of the World,[n.74] [66] DĀ 30 at T I 114b7 to 149c21; several parts of DĀ 30 have been translated by Howard 1986: 115–156; a detailed survey of the discourse can be found in Denis 1977b: 289–301, a comparison with the Lokapaññatti in Denis 1977a: xxv. Whereas Mizuno 1961: 70 speaks of the "Loka-utsthāna-sūtra of the Dīrgha Āgama", Dhammajoti 2002/2007: 108 and van Put 2007: 207 reconstruct the title 世記 as Lokaprajñapti; cf. also Bareau 1979b: 301: "Description du monde". Willemen 2008: 60 remarks that "ji in the title means jishuo 記說, explanation. This most probably means prajñapti, but a form of sthā … or a compound (e.g. vyavasthāna), are not impossible." comprises five fascicles in the Taishō edition and is by far the longest discourse in any of the Āgama or Nikāya collections.[n.75] [67] By way of comparison, the Dharmaguptaka counterpart to the longest discourse in the Pāli Nikāyas, the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (DN 16), covers three fascicles: DĀ 2 at T I 11a7 to 30b4. Another rather long discourse is MĀ 222, though due to being abbreviated this is not so evident; cf. Anālayo 2014c: 44–47.

The Discourse on a Record of the World begins with the Buddha staying in Jeta's Grove in the company of one thousand two hundred and fifty monks. Sitting in the assembly hall together after the meal, the monks discuss the topic of the nature of the heavens and the earth, and of living beings.[n.76] [68] DĀ 30 at T I 114b10: "It is marvellous, venerable friends, now what causes the destruction of this heaven and earth? What causes its formation? What are the living beings that dwell in its countries?", 諸賢, 未曾有也, 今此天地何由 而敗? 何由而成? 眾生所居國土云何? The terms 敗 and 成 recur in the title of a discourse mentioned in the account of the first saṅgīti in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya as being part of the Dīrgha-āgama, the "Discourse on the Formation and Destruction of the World", 世界成敗經. Except for the first two discourses in this account's listing, found in T 1428 at T XXII 968b15, the titles of the other discourses do not necessarily correspond to what appear to be their equivalents in the Dīrgha-āgama: 1st (梵動經) ≈ DĀ 21 (梵動經), 2nd (增一) ≈ DĀ 11 (增一經), 3rd (增十) ≈ DĀ 10 (十上經), 5th (僧祇陀經) ≈ DĀ 9 (眾集經), 6th (大因緣經) ≈ DĀ 13 (大緣方便經), 7th (天帝釋問經) ≈ DĀ 14 (釋提桓因問經). The 4th in this listing, the 世界成敗經, could correspond to DĀ 5, 小緣經, translated in Meisig 1988, since this discourse briefly refers to the destruction of the world, T I 37b28, and then takes up the formation of the world in detail; a possible correspondence already suggested by Oldenberg 1898: 653. According to Bareau 1966: 50, however, the reference 世界成敗 經 is to DĀ 30, the 世記經. On this identification it would follow that at the time of the translation of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya this discourse was already part of the Dīrgha-āgama (according to an introduction that prefaces the Dīrgha-āgama, the translation of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya was completed before the translation of the Dīrgha-āgama; cf. T 1a28). It is possible, however, that the reference was added to the listing in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya during a subsequent revision of the translation, the undertaking of which is mentioned in the introduction to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya itself, T 1428 at T XXII 567b3; cf. also Heirman 2006: 415. The Buddha overhears their conversation through his supernormal ability of the divine ear. He joins them and the monks report what they had been discussing. The Buddha praises them for broaching such a topic and asks if they wish him to expound on this theme, to which the monks happily agree. After this introductory exchange, the discourse proper starts, providing a detailed description of matters of cosmology in twelve chapters.

The first two chapters of the discourse describe Jambudīpa and Uttarakuru, followed by a chapter that portrays a cakravartin with his various endowments and a chapter that surveys the hells. The discourse continues with chapters on nāgas and garuḍas, on the asuras, on the Four Heavenly Kings, and on the devas of the Thirty-three, together with various other matters. Then come chapters on the three calamities (i.e., the destruction of the world by fire, water, and wind), on warfare between the devas and the asuras, on three types of kalpas during which the lifespan and morality of beings decrease, and on the coming into being of the world after one of the three calamities. The discourse concludes with the standard description of the delight of the listening monks.

Much of the information given in these chapters can be found elsewhere among the early discourses, although often put to a different purpose. Thus, for example, the function of the cakravartin in the early discourses is not yet to provide a model that Buddhist kings should emulate, which appears to be a later development. Instead, the main function of the cakravartin motif seems to be rather to convey the soteriological message that even the acme of worldly power is vastly inferior to renunciation and liberation.[n.77] [70] Cf. in more detail Anālayo 2011g. Such a message is no longer evident in the third chapter of the Discourse on a Record of the World, whose function is merely to provide a detailed description of a cakravartin.[n.78] [71] DĀ 30 at T I 119b26.

The overall impression conveyed by the discourse is as if all kinds of information on cosmological matters had been collected from various discourses and passages to form a single text that gives an exhaustive account of the world from a Buddhist viewpoint.[n.79] [72] On Buddhist (and Indian) cosmology cf., e.g., de La Vallée Poussin 1911, Kirfel 1920, Günther 1944, Bhattacharyya 1969, Gombrich 1975, Reynolds and Reynolds 1982, Kloetzli 1983, Jayawardhana 1984, Nattier 1991, Kongtrul 1995, Gethin 1997, Sadakata 1997/2004, Sankarnarayan et al. 2002, Gethin 2004, and Zhu 2006. As a result, the Discourse on a Record of the World is not only exceptionally long, but also has a somewhat different thrust when compared to cosmological descriptions found elsewhere in the early discourses, as these usually serve to illustrate some doctrinal teaching.

Although doctrinal teachings are also found in the Discourse on a Record of the World, these appear for the most part to have made their way into the description accidentally, simply because they were found in the original discourse from which a particular passage was taken.[n.80] [73] Anesaki 1908: 35 comments that texts like DĀ 30 "may have been one of the products of the period in which many manuals of Buddhist philosophy and tradition were compiled".

In sum, the function of the Discourse on a Record of the World appears to be mainly a descriptive one – providing "a record of the world", as the title indicates – and in its basic thrust this discourse is thereby similar to texts like the Jain Ṭhāṇaṅga, for example, where Mahāvīra is shown to give all kinds of detailed description of cosmological matters.[n.81] [74] For an edition of the Ṭhāṇaṅga cf. Jambūvijaya 1985; on its structure cf. Krümpelmann 2006. In sum, it seems that the Discourse on a Record of the World could be a comparatively late text.[n.82] [75] Pande 1957: 79 comments that this "single long cosmological sūtra … appears apocryphal". He appears to have come to this conclusion based on the survey of the chapters of DĀ 30 given in Nanjio 1883/1989: 137.

The impression that the Discourse on a Record of the World could be a latecomer to the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama collection is strengthened when the entire collection is examined from a structural viewpoint. In what follows I consider the function of such structuring by looking at the other Āgamas and Nikāyas, in order to be able to apply this to the case of the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama.

In the case of the saṃyukta and ekottarika collections, the fact that these collections are subdivided by way of topics or numbers – the saṃyukta is arranged according to topics, the ekottarika groups discourses according to a numerical principle ranging from Ones to Elevens – would have facilitated portioning off parts of the collection for memorization purposes.

The same procedure is less easily applied to the long and middle-length discourse collections, as these are not structured by topic or a numerical principle. Nevertheless, a similar effect can still be achieved. This can be seen by taking a closer look at the Majjhima-nikāya, transmitted by the Theravāda tradition, where a basic threefold division appears to have fulfilled this purpose.[n.83] [76] What follows is based on extracts from Anālayo 2010g. This basic threefold division of the Majjhima-nikāya collects the discourses in three fifties:

• the Mūla-paṇṇāsa, "the root fifty" (50 discourses),
• the Majjhima-paṇṇāsa, "the middle fifty" (50 discourses),
• the Upari-paṇṇāsa, "the top fifty" (52 discourses).

The Visuddhimagga indicates that these three fifties were to be learned by a prospective reciter one after the other in succession. That is, reciters would at first memorize the first fifty, and when this was accomplished they would turn to the middle fifty. When these had been successfully committed to memory, they would learn the final fifty.[n.84] [77] Vism 95,23 describes that a prospective reciter of the Majjhima-nikāya needs first to memorize the first fifty, then the middle fifty, and then the final fifty, mūlapaṇṇāsaṃ sajjhāyantassa majjhimapaṇṇāsako āgacchati, taṃ sajjhāyantassa uparipaṇṇāsako. According to the Samantapāsādikā, a monk who wants to become a reciter of the Majjhima-nikāya needs to memorize at least the first set of fifty.[n.85] [78] Sp IV 789,14; cf. above p. 92 note 38. From this it would follow that the first set of fifty is the minimum that needs to be learned, to which the middle and the final fifty could then be added. Although these descriptions are only found in commentarial texts, they may well reflect ancient patterns among reciters.

Extrapolating from the indications given in the commentaries, the subdivision into three fifties could reflect the need to accommodate differences in the memory skills of those who wish to become reciters of the Majjhima-nikāya. A reciter of less talent in memorization may only learn the first fifty, as suggested in the Samantapāsādikā. The first set of fifty in fact collects discourses that take up the most essential themes required for a monastic's training and practice. Thus learning the first fifty would provide a reciter with expositions on the most foundational matters.

A reciter with more abilities could then continue and learn also the second fifty. Having learned two fifties would enable such a reciter to take up preaching on a broader scale. For such purposes the five chapters assembled in the second fifty would be particularly apt, as they collect discourses spoken to householders, monks, wanderers, kings, and brahmins.[n.86] [79] This is evident from the titles of the subdivisions of the middle fifty: gahapati-vagga, bhikkhu-vagga, paribbājaka-vagga, rāja-vagga, and brāhmaṇa-vagga. These five groups are the main audiences that a reciter would encounter when preaching on a broader scale, so that learning this second set of fifty would provide a selection of discourses related to each of these groups, as occasion demands.

A reciter who trains further and becomes a fully fledged majjhima-bhāṇaka, in the sense of memorizing all of the discourses in this collection, would also be versed in the more detailed descriptions of meditation practice and related topics provided in several of the discourses collected under the third fifty. This would enable such a reciter not only to be a preacher in general, but also to act as a teacher for more advanced disciples and fellow monastics, guiding them in their practice.

In this way the division into three fifties appears to suit the exigencies of oral transmission, where reciters of differing degrees of ability need to be provided with a foundational set of discourses, with the option of adding more material for teaching the wider society through the second fifty, and eventually more expositions for adepts in memorizing the Majjhima-nikāya by learning the final fifty.

The counterpart to the Majjhima-nikāya of the Theravāda tradition, the Madhyama-āgama extant in Chinese and apparently transmitted by Sarvāstivāda reciters, has considerably more discourses than its Pāli counterpart and does not show evidence of having been partitioned in a threefold manner.

Coming back to the collections of long discourses, the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya also adopts a threefold division , similar to the Majjhima-nikāya, as follows:[n.87] [81] On this threefold division cf. also Bapat 1926.

• the Sīlakkhandha-vagga, the chapter on the aggregate of morality, (13 discourses),
• the Mahā-vagga, the great chapter, (10 discourses),
• the Pāṭika-vagga, the chapter [beginning with] Pāṭika, (11 discourses).

Whereas the tripartite division of the Majjhima-nikāya does not seem to have an equivalent in the Sarvāstivāda Madhyama-āgama, the threefold division of the Dīgha-nikāya does have a counterpart in the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama preserved in Sanskrit fragments, which also falls into three main sections:

• the Ṣaṭsūtraka-nipāta, a section with six discourses, (6 discourses),
• the Yuga-nipāta, a section on pairs [of discourses], (18 discourses),
• the Śīlaskandha-nipāta, a section on the aggregate of morality, (23 discourses).

Although the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya and the Sarvāstivāda/ Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama agree on this basic threefold division, the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama instead falls into four main chapters.[n.88] Cf. above p. 396 note 6. For the Dharmaguptaka collection to differ from its Theravāda counterpart on an issue where the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda versions agree is noteworthy, since the general tendency is for the results of the Theravāda and Dharmaguptaka transmissions of the collection of long discourses to be similar.[n.89] [82] On the otherwise close relation between the Theravāda Dīgha-nikāya and the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama cf., e.g., Lamotte 1949/1981: 811 note 1 and Waldschmidt 1980: 149, as well as the discussion above p. 396f. In view of the relationship of these two traditions in the history of the Buddhist schools, for their collections of long discourses to disagree on such a fundamental matter as the basic division of the collection, especially when the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda collections are in agreement in this respect, is significant.

This supports the impression that the Discourse on a Record of the World is a later addition to the collection, since without this discourse the Dharmaguptaka Dīrgha-āgama would also follow the subdivision into three chapters, similar to its Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda counterparts.

In principle, the integration of such an addition could have happened at any time during the transmission in India of the Dīrgha-āgama or even at the time of its translation into Chinese.[n.90] [83] In view of the case record of the translator Zhú Fóniàn (竺佛念), studied by Nattier 2010, it cannot a priori be excluded that the Discourse on a Record of the World became part of the Dīrgha-āgama only in China. At the time of the translation of the Dīrgha-āgama, a comparable discourse on cosmological matters had already been translated: T 23 at T I 27a3, 大樓炭經, which according to the information given in the Taishō edition happened during the Western Jìn and thus towards the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century. Nanjio 1883/1989: 139 refers to T 23 (his no. 551) as one instance of what he calls "earlier translations" of DĀ 30. An interest in cosmological matters is also evident in EĀ 40.1 at T II 735c15, translated by the same Zhú Fóniàn before undertaking the translation of the Dīrgha-āgama. EĀ 40.1 precedes its exposition of the destruction of the world by seven suns with a long cosmological description, and after the destruction continues by depicting the re-emergence of the world, T II 736c16, material that bears similarities to DĀ 30, but is absent from the parallels to EĀ 40.1: AN 7.62 at AN IV 100,1, MĀ 8 at T I 428c7, T 30 at T I 811c19, and D 4094 ju 102b3 or Q 5595 tu 117a7 (edited and translated in Dietz 2007, together with an edition of relevant Sanskrit fragments). Be that as it may, it seems clear that this discourse is a latecomer to the collection, an addition that in view of the nature of the discourse can be assumed to have happened subsequent to the addition of the two discourses surveyed in the first part of this chapter.

What these additions have in common is the attempt to provide a map. In the case of the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11) and the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12), this attempt is an extension of a concern already evident in the Saṅgīti-sutta and the Dasuttara-sutta found in all three collections of long discourses. The need to have a map of central doctrinal teachings must have made itself felt soon after the teacher's demise. In fact the parallel versions of the Saṅgīti-sutta explicitly indicate that the main purpose of the discourse is to forestall disputes about the teachings once the Buddha has passed away.[n.91] [84] For a more detailed discussion cf. Anālayo 2014c. The Discourse on a Record of the World (DĀ 30), however, reflects concerns of a later period.[n.92] [85] De La Vallée Poussin 1911: 129 begins his survey of Buddhist cosmogony and cosmology with the remark: "in the earliest times, speculations on the universe were apparently regarded as wrong"; cf. also Bhattacharyya 1969: 49f: "the Buddha did not encourage speculations on the universe, which, according to him, were nothing but foolish questions … but in [the] course of time the Buddhists developed a systematic cosmographical outlook." Interest in an exhaustive account of the world from a Buddhist viewpoint would have arisen only once the making of maps had already acquired a momentum of its own for quite some time.

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Conclusion

The three discourses in the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama that are without parallels in other early discourse collections appear to be later additions to the collection. They have in common an attempt to map doctrinal terrain. Whereas the Discourse Increasing by One (DĀ 11) and the Discourse on the Three Groups (DĀ 12) still seem to belong to an early stage in the development of such maps, the Discourse on a Record of the World (DĀ 30) appears to reflect a later stage.

The circumstance that all of the three discourses in the Chinese Dīrgha-āgama that are without parallels appear to be later additions should not be taken to reflect a general rule, however, assuming that any discourse without parallels must be a latecomer to the collection. It is always possible that a discourse is now extant from only one textual lineage due to the vicissitudes of transmission. An example is the Jīvaka-sūtra of the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda Dīrgha-āgama. Until the recent discovery of fragments of this Jīvaka-sūtra, only the Majjhima-nikāya version of this discourse was known. This was because the Sarvāstivāda/Mūlasarvāstivāda reciters had allocated this discourse to their long discourse collection, whereas the Theravāda reciters placed their version of this discourse in their middle-length collection. [n.93] [86] For a more detailed discussion cf. Anālayo 2012f: 528–532. This goes to show that lack of a parallel can simply be the result of differences in the distribution of discourses among the four discourse collections, transmitted by various Buddhist schools, of which we only have a complete set in the case of the Theravāda tradition.