Introduction

In this chapter, I translate and study the list of outstanding nuns found in the Ekottarika-āgama. This list of outstanding nuns is part of a survey of all four assemblies, which comprises monks, nuns, male lay followers and female lay followers. Each of these four assemblies is considered an integral and necessary part of a Buddhist community.[n.1] [2] On the four assemblies cf. also Anālayo 2010g: 65–72.

Overall, the number of outstanding disciples of each of the four assemblies listed in the Ekottarika-āgama is greater than the number in its Aṅguttara-nikāya counterpart. In the case of the nuns, the Ekottarika-āgama lists fifty-one outstanding nuns, whereas the Aṅguttara-nikāya has thirteen.[n.2] [3] This difference has already been noted by Skilling 2000a: 55.

The two listings have eleven nuns in common.[n.3] [4] The following two nuns are not mentioned in the Ekottarika-āgama list: the nun Nandā, who is reckoned foremost among those engaging in meditation (jhāyīnaṃ), AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,23, and the nun Sigālamātā (Be: Siṅgālamātā), foremost among those of resolute "faith" or "confidence" (saddhādhimuttānaṃ), AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,31. Although the latter is absent from the Ekottarika-āgama list, a reference to Sīgālakamātā (following the identification in Akanuma 1930/1994: 614) appears in another list of eminent nuns, found in T 126 at T II 833c20, where she is reckoned outstanding for having gone forth out of faith or confidence, aspiring to (the attainment) of great realizations. Another listing of eminent disciples in a discourse preserved individually in Chinese translation and a reference to such a listing in a fragment preserved in Uighur both speak of fifteen outstanding nuns, headed by Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī.[n.4] [5] T 126 at T II 833c8 and von Gabain 1954: 55. In this way, although these two texts refer to slightly more outstanding nuns than are found in the Pāli, they do not come anywhere near the long listing given in the Ekottarika-āgama, which is by far the longest of these lists of distinguished nuns.

The purpose of according pre-eminence to a particular nun, instances of which are also found in other texts, such as the Avadānaśataka,[n.5] [6] For a study of outstanding nuns in Mūlasarvāstivāda literature in general, including the Avadānaśataka, cf. Skilling 2001a. appears to be to arouse inspiration. The Naḷakapāna-sutta of the Majjhima-nikāya and a parallel found in the Madhyama-āgama explain why the Buddha would declare the level of rebirth of some disciples who had passed away. The two versions agree that the Buddha made such a declaration in order to inspire other disciples, a principle the texts apply to each of the four assemblies. In the case of nuns, the two versions describe how a nun might hear the Buddha announce that another nun, whom she may have personally met or else have heard about, passed away as an arahant. On hearing the Buddha's declaration, this nun might reflect on the qualities of the other nun, on her morality, her wisdom, etc., and thus be inspired to follow her example.[n.6] [7] MN 68 at MN I 466,10 and MĀ 77 at T I 545c29. The same holds in the case of hearing that a nun passed away as a nonreturner, as a once-returner, or as a stream-enterer. In each case, another nun reflects on the qualities of the deceased nun and thereby gains the inspiration required to progress towards the same goal.

The same principle of inspiration occurs in other passages, in which the Buddha presents two of his disciples from each of the four assemblies as the models for other disciples to emulate. In the case of the nuns, according to two Pāli discourses and a Chinese parallel, a nun should aspire to be like Khemā or Uppalavaṇṇā.[n.7] [8] SN 17.24 at SN II 236,15, its parallel EĀ 9.2 at T II 562b21, and AN 2.12.2 at AN I 88,16. The Mahāvastu, Senart 1882b: 251,21, lists Kṣemā and Utpalavarṇā as the two chief female monastic disciples of the Buddha. A Sanskrit fragment counterpart to one of these Pāli discourses differs inasmuch as it presents Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī and Utpalavarṇā as the models for other nuns. [n.8] [9] Tripāṭhī 1995: 198 (28,Z2), parallel to AN 2.12.2. Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī, Khemā, and Uppalavaṇṇā are also the first three nuns mentioned in the list of outstanding nuns in the Aṅguttara-nikāya and Ekottarika-āgama, a positioning that could reflect their eminence in the early Buddhist community.

The list of outstanding nuns in the Ekottarika-āgama falls into five sections. In what follows, I translate these separately, with a brief study following each section.[n.9] The names of the nuns in the Ekottarika-āgama are at times difficult to reconstruct. This difficulty combines with the fact that proper names generally do not fare too well in orally transmitted texts, unless they refer to particularly well-known individuals. Hence the proper names in my translation below are at times just tentative reconstructions.

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Translation (1)

Chapter Five on Nuns in the Ekottarika-āgama[n.10] The translated text is EĀ 5.1 to 5.5 at T II 558c20 to 559c7, which was previously translated into French by Huyên-Vi (1987). In my translation, I have at times followed what seem to be preferable readings found in a recapitulation of the list of eminent nuns in T 2040 at T L 12a13 to 12c5. In my notes I do not attempt to cover information provided in Pāli commentarial literature, or in the Pāli Apadāna collection. Information on nuns that includes Theravāda commentarial literature can be found s.v. in Malalasekera 1937/1995 and 1938/ 1998; for a translation of the commentary on the list of eminent nuns in the Aṅguttara-nikāya cf. Bode 1893; a rendering of the commentary on the Therīgāthā can be found in Pruitt 1998/1999; cf. also Murcott 1991.

1)[n.11] [12] For ease of cross-reference, in my translation I have introduced a number for each nun, which is not found in the original. Here and below, I list the bases for my identifications of the names of the nuns in order of reliability, beginning with the fairly certain identifications given in the 佛光 edition of the Madhyama-āgama. In the case of the names of Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī (1), Khemā (2), Uppalavaṇṇā (3), Kisāgotamī (4), Sakulā (5), Sāmā (6), Paṭācārā (8), and [Bhaddā] Kaccānā (9) I follow the indications given in the 佛光 edition (for (9) Huyên-Vi 1987: 47 instead suggests Kātyāyanī, cf. also note 29 below); for Vijayā (10) I follow Huyên-Vi 1987: 47 (here and elsewhere, I replace Huyên-Vi's Sanskrit reconstructions with Pāli proper names). In the case of Padumarañjanā (7), the first two characters of 波頭蘭闍那 are the standard rendering of paduº in paduma, whereas the following three characters could be rendering a term like rañjana. Here and elsewhere, my reconstructions are at times conjectural and do not imply certainty about the underlying Indic name nor even that such a name is attested elsewhere. Among my [ordained] disciples,[n.12] [11] The translators of the lists in the Ekottarika-āgama introduce foremost monks and nuns in one way and foremost lay disciples in another. In the case of monastics, the term used is 聲聞, whereas the expression employed for laity is 弟子; both terms can be translated as "disciple". In order to reflect the distinction apparently made by using two different terms, I add "[ordained]" to the term "disciple" in the present case, intending this to stand in contrast to the phrase "[lay] disciple" used in the subsequent part of the listing of eminent disciples, which is, however, no longer part of the extracts translated here. the foremost of those nuns who have gone forth to train for a long time and are thus respected by the king of the country is the nun called Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī;

2) … of those who are wise and intelligent is the nun called Khemā;[n.13] Here and below, the abbreviations are found in the original.

3) … of those who excel in supernormal powers, being able to summon divine beings, is the nun called Uppalavaṇṇā;

4) … of those who undertake ascetic practices, the eleven restraints, is the nun called Kisāgotamī;

5) … of those [possessing] the divine eye, having supremely unobstructed vision, is the nun called Sakulā;

6) … of those who, sitting in meditation, enter concentration with a mind that is not scattered, is the nun called Sāmā;

7) … of those who analyze the meaning and widely teach the development of the path, is the nun called Padumarañjanā;

8) … of those who respectfully uphold the disciplinary rules without infraction is the nun called Paṭācārā;

9) … of those who have irreversibly attained liberation by faith (saddhā) is the nun called [Bhaddā] Kaccānā;

10) … of those who have attained the four analytical knowledges, being without timidity in the heart, is the nun called Vijayā.[n.14] Here and below, the names of the nuns are repeated, at times in an abbreviated fashion, at the end of each part in a summary verse (uddāna), which I have not translated.

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Study (1)

The Aṅguttara-nikāya list of outstanding nuns agrees with the Ekottarika-āgama version that Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī (1) was foremost for being of long standing, although without mentioning that she was respected by the king.[n.15] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,18: rattaññūnaṃ. T 126 at T II 833c10 indicates that she had gone forth long ago from a royal clan, without mentioning that she was respected by the king. A detailed study of Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī can be found in Dash 2008; for the stanzas attributed to her cf. Thī 157–162. The reference to the longevity of her discipleship is reminiscent of the well-known story of how she requested permission from the Buddha for women to go forth and then eventually came to be the first nun. In other words, behind her eminence in this respect stands not only the regard traditionally afforded in Buddhist monastic circles to those who have been ordained for a long time, but also her role in having requested that the Buddha start an order of nuns in the first place.[n.16] A comparative study of the different canonical accounts of this event can be found in Anālayo 2011f and 2016b. A critical review of the suggestion by Williams 2000: 170 that Buddhist nuns were in existence before Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī went forth, which would imply that she could not be reckoned foremost in being of long standing, can be found in Anālayo 2008c: 108–110.

The two listings agree that Khemā (2) was foremost in wisdom.[n.17] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,19 indicates that Khemā was foremost among those who were of great wisdom, mahāpaññānaṃ, a rank similarly accorded to her in the Avadānaśataka, Speyer 1909/1970: 50,9, which additionally mentions her eloquence; a reference already noted in Skilling 2001a: 143. Her fame for being wise is also recorded in another Pāli discourse, in which she replies to the questions posed by a king regarding the destiny of a fully awakened one, a tathāgata.[n.18] In the introductory narration, SN 44.1 at SN IV 374,24 reports that she was famous for her wisdom and eloquence; for a study of Khemā cf. Krey 2010. The eminence of Uppalavaṇṇā (3) in regard to supernormal powers is another point of agreement between the two traditions.[n.19] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,20: iddhimantānaṃ (Be and Ce: iddhimantīnaṃ); stanzas attributed to her can be found in Thī 224–235, her being challenged by Māra is reported in SN 5.5 at SN I 131,26, SĀ 1201 at T II 326c26, and SĀ2 217 at T II 454b20. On Utpalavarṇā in the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition cf. Silk 2008/2009: 137–163. A famous tale related to her supernormal abilities describes how she transformed herself into a wheel-turning king in order to move easily to the front of a large crowd and receive the Buddha, who was returning from a long sojourn in heaven. [n.20] This tale can be found in the same Ekottarika-āgama collection, EĀ 36.5 at T II 707c4, and in its commentary T 1507 at T XXV 37c29; cf. also, e.g., the Divyāvadāna, Cowell and Neil 1886: 401,24, or SĀ 604 at T II 169c25; for further references cf. Lamotte 1949/1981: 634 note 1. Bapat 1950: 42 in note 10 to his translation of a version of this tale in the Chinese counterpart to the commentary on the Aṭṭhakavagga, T 198 at T IV 185c9, notes that in Thī 229 Uppalavaṇṇā proclaims to have created a four-horsed chariot magically and paid homage at the Buddha's feet. It is possible that this stanza could reflect a similar narrative (cf. also Young 2004: 194), although Dhp-a III 211,21 (cf. also Mp I 356,13) only reports that at an earlier moment in the narrative she volunteered to transform herself into a wheel-turning king, which the Buddha declined. This tale probably should be read in the light of the belief that women by nature cannot fulfil the position of a wheel-turning king.[n.21] Cf. Strong 2010: 974; for a study of this stipulation cf. Anālayo 2009a. The *Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra, T 1509 at T XXV 137a13, in fact indicates that she transformed herself into a wheel-turning king "wishing to get rid of the bad reputation of women", 欲除女名之惡 (my translation differs from Lamotte 1949/1981: 636: "pour dissimuler son sexe mal famé"), which could be read as a challenge to the notion that women are unable to be wheel-turning kings.

The list of eminent nuns in the Aṅguttara-nikāya presents Kisāgotamī (4) as foremost for wearing coarse robes,[n.22] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,30: lūkacīvaradharānaṃ; she is the twelfth in the list of nuns. Stanzas attributed to her can be found in Thī 213–223; she is challenged by Māra in SN 5.3 at SN I 130,9, SĀ 1200 at T II 326b29, and SĀ2 216 at T II 454a27. whereas according to the Ekottarika-āgama she was outstanding in respect of ascetic practices in general, specified as comprising eleven types of restraints.[n.23] On eleven or twelve ascetic practices in T 125 cf. above p. 95 note 19. Such ascetic practices could involve wearing only rag robes, begging for food, living at the root of a tree, in a cemetery or in an open place, etc., or not lying down to sleep, but maintaining the sitting posture instead.[n.24] AN 5.182–186 at AN III 219,25; for the last type of ascetic practice a parallel can be found in SHT III 820 bB3, Waldschmidt et al. 1971: 37.

The two versions agree that Sakulā (5) was foremost among those possessing the divine eye,[n.25] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,25: dibbacakkhukānaṃ (Be gives her name as Bakulā); she is the eighth nun in the Aṅguttara-nikāya list. Stanzas attributed to her can be found in Thī 97–101, where stanza Thī 100 explicitly indicates that she had well developed, sādhu bhāvitaṃ, this clairvoyant ability. to which the Ekottarika-āgama adds that she was supreme in unobstructed vision. The divine eye stands for the ability, gained after mastery of the four absorptions, to see the passing away and rebirth of other living beings in accordance with their former deeds. This is one out of three higher knowledges that, according to the canonical texts, the Buddha attained during the night of his awakening.[n.26] Cf., e.g., MN 36 at MN I 248,19 and EĀ 31.8 at T II 672a6.

A nun by the name of Sāmā (6) is not mentioned in the Aṅguttara-nikāya list, although the same name is known from the Therīgāthā.[n.27] Two different nuns by the name of Sāmā are mentioned as the authors of Thī 37–38 and Thī 39–41.

The Aṅguttara-nikāya describes Paṭācārā (8), whom it presents as the fourth nun in its list, as foremost among those who uphold the discipline.[n.28] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,21: vinayadharānaṃ; stanzas attributed to her can be found in Thī 112–116. She is also frequently mentioned in stanzas by other nuns; cf., e.g., Thī 119, Thī 125, and Thī 178. This appears to have the sense of remembering the code of discipline, whereas in the Ekottarika-āgama version her eminence lies in upholding the disciplinary rules without infraction; that is, in scrupulously observing them.

In the Aṅguttara-nikāya list Bhaddā Kaccānā (9) is reckoned outstanding for having attained great supernormal knowledges,[n.29] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,29: mahābhiññappattānaṃ; she is the eleventh of the nuns in the list. Notably, AN 1.14.7 at AN I 26,24 lists the lay woman Kātiyānī as foremost among female lay disciples for her "faith" or "confidence", thus corresponding to the alternative rendering suggested by Huyên-Vi 1987: 47 for the present case; cf. note 11 above. whereas the Ekottarika-āgama list highlights that she has attained liberation by "faith" or "confidence" (saddhā). I will return to her eminence in this respect, reflected in another Ekottarika-āgama discourse, in a subsequent chapter.[n.30] Cf. p. 396. AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,31 reckons Sigālamātā as foremost in liberation by "faith" or "confidence"; cf. above note 3.

The supernormal knowledges are six abilities based on mastery of the four absorptions, comprising supernormal powers (levitation etc.), the divine ear (hearing sounds at a great distance), telepathic knowledge of the minds of others, recollection of one's own past lives, the divine eye, and the destruction of the influxes (āsava). Liberation by faith or confidence usually designates trainees who by dint of their realization possess unshakeable confidence in the Buddha.[n.31] MN 70 at MN I 478,32 and MĀ 195 at T I 751c23.

A nun by the name of Vijayā (10) is not found in the Aṅguttara-nikāya list of outstanding nuns, although a nun by this name occurs elsewhere in the Pāli canon.[n.32] A nun by the name of Vijayā occurs in SN 5.4 at SN I 130,26 and its parallels SĀ 1204 at T II 327c17 and SĀ2 220 at T II 455b3; stanzas attributed to Vijayā can be found at Thī 169–174. Her eminence in regard to the four analytical knowledges refers to a particular type of knowledge, paṭisambhidā, which implies the ability to know the meaning or sense of things and the principle or dharma that underlies them, as well as knowing the (proper use of) language, and having (ability in) eloquence in regard to these.[n.33] AN 4.173 at AN II 160,21 reports Sāriputta's attainment of the four paṭisambhidās. AN 5.86 at AN III 113,12 notes that other monks will highly esteem a monk who possesses five qualities, four of which are the paṭisambhidās, and AN 5.95 at AN III 120,1 specifies that a monk will quickly attain the highest if he is endowed with five qualities, which again include the four paṭisambhidās. These passages reflect the high regard in which the four paṭisambhidās were held.

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Translation (2)

11) Among my [ordained] disciples, the foremost of those nuns who recollect their own past lives for innumerable aeons is the nun called Bhaddā Kāpilānī;[n.34] In this second part, EĀ 5.2, for Bhaddā Kāpilānī (11), Soṇā (13), Dhammadinnā (14), Jentī (17), and Dantikā (18) I follow the indications given in the 佛光 edition, and for Uttarā (15) and Pabhā (16) I follow Huyên-Vi 1987: 48, who differs from the above in suggesting Sūrā for (13) and Dattā for (18). In the case of (12), 醯摩闍, I follow an indication given in T 2130 at T LIV 1001c5 that this name translates the terms "snow" and "birth", 雪生. The rendering 天 與 employed for (19) could stand for Devadinnā (or else Devadattā). Judging from Akanuma 1930/1994: 214, 瞿卑 for (20) could refer to Gopī or Gopikā, a name found in a list of Buddhist disciples in Mvy no. 1071, Sakaki 1926: 82, although written 瞿夷; for other renderings of Gopī cf. also Peri 1918: 9 note 2. On Bhaddā Kāpilānī cf. also below p. 398ff and on Soṇā p. 359ff.

12) … of those who are of upright countenance and thus respected and liked by the people is the nun called Himajātā;

13) … of those who overcome heterodox practitioners and establish them in the right teaching is the nun called Soṇā;

14) … of those who analyze the meaning and widely discourse on divisions and parts [of the Dharma] is the nun called Dhammadinnā;

15) … of those who are not ashamed of wearing rough robes is the nun called Uttarā;

16) … of those who have calm senses and are always with a unified mind is the nun called Pabhā;

17) … of those who wear the robes in an orderly manner, always according to the instructions of the Dharma, is the nun called Jentī;

18) … of those who are able to discuss in various ways without doubt or hesitation is the nun called Danti[kā];

19) … of those who compose stanzas in praise of the virtues of the Tathāgata is the nun called Devadinnā;

20) … of those who are widely learned and in their kindness reach out even to the most inferior is the nun called Gopī.[n.35] Adopting the variant 恩惠 instead of 恩慧.

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Study (2)

The register of outstanding nuns in the Aṅguttara-nikāya agrees with its Ekottarika-āgama parallel that Bhaddā Kāpilānī (11) was foremost among those who recollect past lives, an ability of her that comes to the fore in another Ekottarika-āgama discourse translated and studied below.[n.36] Cf. below p. 398ff. AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,27: pubbenivāsaṃ anussarantīnaṃ (Be and Ce give her name as Bhaddākāpilānī), mentioned in the tenth position in the list; stanzas attributed to her can be found in Thī 63–66, of which stanza 65 explicitly reports her attainment of the three higher knowledges (and thus implicitly of recollection of past lives); cf. also below p. 409 note 81.

As mentioned above, recollection of one's own past lives is a supernormal knowledge whose acquisition requires having cultivated the four absorptions. Similar to the divine eye, this is also one of the three higher knowledges that the Buddha attained on the night of his awakening.

The two sources differ in regard to Soṇā (13). The Pāli version records her as foremost among those who are energetic,[n.37] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,24: āraddhaviriyānaṃ (Be: āraddhavīriyānaṃ), where she occurs as seventh in the list; stanzas attributed to her are found in Thī 102–106. whereas the Chinese list speaks of her overcoming heterodox practitioners and establishing them in the right teaching. I will come back in the next chapter but one to her ability in this respect.

In the case of Dhammadinnā (14), the two versions agree in mentioning her capability as a teacher.[n.38] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,22 qualifies Dhammadinnā as foremost among speakers on the Dharma, dhammakathikānaṃ; she is the fifth nun in the Pāli list. T 126 at T II 833c17 similarly highlights her ability to well expound the sublime Dharma. A stanza attributed to her can be found in Thī 12. Her ability in this respect is documented in another discourse, found in the Majjhima-nikāya with parallels in the Madhyama-āgama and a discourse quotation in the Abhidharmakośopāyikāṭīkā, in which she replies to a series of questions regarding profound aspects of the Dharma. Being informed about her exposition, in all of the three versions the Buddha declared that he would have explained the matter in just the same way himself.[n.39] MN 44 at MN I 304,34, MĀ 210 at T I 790a29, and D 4094 ju 11a4 or Q 5595 tu 12a8. On Dhammadinnā cf. also Foley 1894, Krey 2010, Anālayo 2011b, and Yao 2015.

The remaining nuns in this part of the Ekottarika-āgama list of outstanding nuns are not mentioned in the Aṅguttara-nikāya version. Nuns by the name of Uttarā (15), Jentī (17), and Dantikā (18) are, however, known as authors of stanzas in the Therīgāthā.[n.40] Uttarā is mentioned as the author(s) of Thī 15 and Thī 175–181, a nun by the name of Jentī is given as the author of Thī 21–22 (Be and Ce: Jentā, Se: Jantā), and a nun by the name of Dantikā as the author of Thī 48–50.

Regarding the qualities of the nuns mentioned in this second part, the reference to the calm senses possessed by Pabhā (16) reflects the importance of sense-restraint as a basis for the gaining of deeper levels of concentration, a recurrent theme in the standard descriptions of the gradual path to liberation. Jentī's wearing of the robes in an orderly manner expresses a quality esteemed in monastics, as their dignified conduct serves as an inspiration to those who happen to meet them.[n.41] According to AN 8.10 at AN IV 169,6 and its parallel MĀ 122 at T I 611b4, a genuine monk is expected to wear his robes well, so much so that evil monks will imitate such behaviour in order not to be detected. The expression used to describe Jentī's way of wearing robes recurs in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya as part of a description of another nun whose awe-inspiring behaviour aroused joyful inspiration in the mind of an onlooker; cf. T 1428 at T XXII 768b12.

Praising the qualities of the Buddha (19) and thereby giving poetic expression to the regard the disciples would have felt for their teacher is another quality highly valued in the discourses. The Ekottarika-āgama list of outstanding monks reckons the illustrious poet Vaṅgīsa as foremost in this respect.[n.42] EĀ 4.3 at T II 557b22. AN 1.14.2 at AN I 24,21 reckons him foremost among those of impromptu delivery. A collection of his poems can be found in the Vaṅgīsasaṃyutta, SN 8.1–12 at SN I 185,1, with counterparts in SĀ 1208– 1219 at T II 329a23 and SĀ² 224–230, SĀ² 250, and SĀ² 252–253 at T II 456b24; cf. also Th 1209–1279. A long series of verses praising the Buddha, spoken by the freshly converted lay disciple Upāli in front of his former teacher, the leader of the Jains, can be found in MN 56 at MN I 386,3, with a Sanskrit parallel in Waldschmidt 1979 and a Chinese parallel in MĀ 133 at T I 632b6; cf. also von Hinüber 1982.

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Translation (3)

21) Among my [ordained] disciples, the foremost of those nuns who are always in secluded quiet places, instead of living among people, is the nun called Abhayā;[n.43] In this third part, EĀ 5.3, for Abhayā (21), Visākhā (22), and Anopamā (31) I follow the indications given in the 佛光 edition; for Bhaddapālā (23), Damā (25), and Sudamā (26) I follow Huyên-Vi 1987: 49. In the case of 摩怒呵利 (24), 優迦羅 (29), and 離那 (30), it seems possible that the respective names could have been Manoharī, Upacālā, and Vinā. My rendering of 珕須那 (27) follows an alternative spelling of her name found in T 2040 at T L 12b10 as 珕 那. In the case of 奢陀 (28), according to Soothill and Hodous 1937/2000: 370 the character couplet renders śāṭhya, corresponding to saṭha in Pāli. Since this results in a rather improbable name, I have not ventured to attempt a reconstruction and just give the pīnyīn.

22) … of those who beg for alms [even when] physically ill, without choosing between rich and poor [donors], is the nun called Visākhā;

23) … of those who sit alone in a single place, without moving at all, is the nun called Bhaddapālā;

24) … of those who wander everywhere, begging [for alms] among a range of people, is the nun called Manoharī;

25) … of those who quickly accomplish the fruits of the path, without in the course of that [encountering any] obstruction, is the nun called Damā;

26) … of those who keep to the three [main] robes, never being separate from them, is the nun called Sudamā;

27) … of those who always sit at the root of a tree with an unmoving mind is the nun called Līnā;

28) … of those who always live out in the open, without caring for a cover, is the nun called Shētuó;

29) … of those who delight in empty and secluded places, not in being among people, is the nun called Upacālā;

30) … of those who continually sit on a grass mat, without [even] putting a cloth on it, is the nun called Vinā;

31) … of those who wear rag robes and go to beg [for alms from houses] in the proper order is the nun called Anopamā.[n.44] Adopting the variant 分衛 instead of 分越.

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Study (3)

None of the nuns in this third part appear in the Aṅguttara-nikāya list of outstanding nuns, although nuns by the name of Abhayā (21), Visākhā (22), Upacālā (29), and Anopamā (31) have verses attributed to them in the Therīgāthā.[n.45] A nun by the name of Abhayā is mentioned as the author of Thī 35–36, a nun by the name of Visākhā as the author of Thī 13, a nun by the name of Upacālā as the author of Thī 189–195, and a nun by the name of Anopamā as the author of Thī 151–156. Upacālā also occurs in SN 5.7 at SN I 133,6 and its parallels SĀ 1206 at T II 328b17 and SĀ2 222 at T II 455c24.

Several of the qualities of the nuns in this section are related to a secluded living style and ascetic conduct, following the ideal of the monastic life depicted in the early discourses. Abhayā (21) stands out for keeping away from contact with people and living in seclusion, which according to the Mahāsuññata-sutta and its Chinese and Tibetan parallels is an important requirement for being able to develop deeper levels of concentration and attain liberation.[n.46] MN 122 at MN III 110,16, MĀ 191 at T I 738a19, and the Tibetan version in Skilling 1994: 194,12. Most of the other qualities are self-explanatory.

Keeping to only three robes (26), living out in the open (28), and wearing rag robes (31) are reckoned among the ascetic practices. The notion of not being separate from one's robes (26) relates to a Vinaya regulation, according to which a fully ordained monastic should not be apart from his or her set of robes at dawn.[n.47] The corresponding rule can be found in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 727c7, translated in Heirman 2002: 441, and T 1431 at T XXII 1033c4, as well as in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, T 1421 at T XXII 83a21 and T 1423 at T XXII 208c2, and in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, T 1443 at T XXIII 944b4 and T 1455 at T XXIV 510c10. In the case of the Mahāsāṅghika and Sarvāstivāda Vinayas, the vibhaṅgas for nuns do not give the corresponding rule in full, as the text should be supplied from the same regulation as for monks; cf. the survey in Hirakawa 1982: 194 note 4. Thus the Sanskrit manuscript of the Lokottaravāda Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya for nuns in Roth 1970: 165,2, translated in Nolot 1991: 159, gives only an abbreviated reference; cf. also the Chinese version, T 1425 at T XXII 524b8. The Sarvāstivāda Vinaya, T 1435 at T XXIII 313b5, begins its section on this particular type of rules with an explanation by the translator (cf. Waldschmidt 1926: 104) that the rules also observed by monks are not given explicitly. In the case of these two Vinayas, however, a translation of the code of rules for nuns is extant in Chinese, which gives the rule in full; cf. T 1427 at T XXII 558b22 and T 1437 at T XXIII 481c3. In the case of the Theravāda Vinaya, according to the explanation given in Sp IV 919,10 (cf. Hüsken 1997b: 135 note 108), the text should be supplemented from the corresponding rules for monks, which in this particular case can be found in Vin III 198,22. For a translation of the different code of rules for nuns cf. Kabilsingh 1998, with a comparative study in Kabilsingh 1984. Begging for food in order (31) refers to the practice of begging at each house in turn on the road one has taken,[n.48] Cf., e.g., the reference to sapadānacārī in Sn 65, where this practice is combined with not being greedy for flavours and not being mentally bound to families. not leaving out any dwelling in anticipation that one might not receive food or might be given only low-quality alms.

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Translation (4)

32) Among my [ordained] disciples, the foremost of those nuns who delight in [staying] in abandoned cemeteries is the nun called Uttamā;[n.49] In this fourth part, EĀ 5.4, for Somā (34), Kālakā (36), Devasu[tā] (37), Suriyapabhā (38), Manāpā (39), Vimadā (40), and Samantapabhāsā (41) I follow Huyên-Vi 1987: 50. In the case of 優迦摩 (32), the characters employed suggest Uttamā, or perhaps rather Upamā, although the latter does not appear to be the name of a nun known elsewhere. My rendering of 清明 (33) as Candā is based on the Sanskrit equivalent given in Hirakawa 1997: 728. My rendering of 摩陀利 (35) as Mātalī is based on the fact that according to T 2130 at T LIV 1001c18 摩陀利 stands for the name of a charioteer, which then brings to mind the charioteer of Sakka by the name of Mātali.

33) … of those who dwell much in mettā, thinking of [all] forms of life with empathy (anukampā), is the nun called Candā;

34) … of those who have compassion for living beings who have not yet reached the path is the nun called Somā;

35) … of those who delight in the attainment of the path with the aspiration to reach it wholly is the nun called Mātalī;

36) … of those who are restrained in all activities and whose mind does not stray far away is the nun called Kālakā;

37) … of those who keep to emptiness and hold on to vacuity, understanding that there is nothing [substantial in the world], is the nun called Devasu[tā];

38) … of those whose heart delights in ⟨sign⟩lessness and in discarding all attachments is the nun called Suriyapabhā;[n.50] [49] My translation is based on emending the original 無想, which is frequently confused with 無相 in Chinese translations; for a survey of examples cf. Anālayo 2011c: 274 note 54. On signlessness cf. the study by Harvey 1986.

39) … of those who cultivate wishlessness, with their mind always [willing] to help [others] widely, is the nun called Manāpā;

40) … of those who are free from doubt in regard to all teachings and who deliver people without limits is the nun called Vimadā;

41) … of those who are able to explain widely and analyze the meaning of profound teachings is the nun called Samantapabhāsā.

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Study (4)

The nuns in this fourth part do not recur in the Aṅguttara-nikāya list of outstanding nuns. However, nuns by the name of Uttamā (32), Candā (33), and Somā (34) are mentioned as authors of stanzas in the Therīgāthā,[n.51] [50] Two different nuns by the name of Uttamā are given as the authors of Thī 42–44 and 45–47 respectively; stanzas attributed to Candā can be found in Thī 122–126, and stanzas attributed to Somā in Thī 60–62. and Somā also features in a discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and its Chinese parallels.[n.52] [51] SN 5.2 at SN I 129,14 and its parallels SĀ 1199 at T II 326a28 and SĀ2 215 at T II 454a5 report Somā being challenged by Māra. The Avadānaśataka reckons Somā to be outstanding in learnedness, Speyer 1909/1970: 22,4; for a study of Somā cf. Collett 2009b.

The present section begins with a nun outstanding for dwelling in cemeteries (32), one of the ascetic practices. The references to emptiness (37), signlessness (38), and wishlessness (39) correspond to three ways of concentrating the mind so as to reach the deathless.[n.53] [52] SN 43.4 at SN IV 360,13. According to a discourse in the Majjhima-nikāya, a meditator will experience these three types of contact on emerging from the cessation of perception and feeling, a particularly profound meditative attainment, although the parallel versions to this Majjhima-nikāya discourse instead mention another three types of contact to be experienced on emerging from the attainment of cessation.[n.54] [53] MN 44 at MN I 302,22; the parallel versions MĀ 211 at T I 792a19 and D 4094 ju 9a6 or Q 5595 tu 10a8 list instead imperturbable contact, nothingness contact, and signless contact; on the attainment of cessation cf. the study by Griffiths 1986/1991.

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Translation (5)

42) Among my [ordained] disciples, the foremost of those nuns who cherish patience in their heart, being just like the earth, which tolerates [anything], is the nun called Dhammadhī;[n.55] In this fifth part, EĀ 5.5, for Sukkā (50) and Bhaddā Kuṇḍalakesā (51) I follow the indications given in the 佛光 edition (disregarding the reference to a "country" that follows the name of 51); for Dhammadhī (42), Suyamā (43), Indajā (44), Nāgī (45), Vasu (47), and Candī (48) I follow Huyên-Vi 1987: 50f. My rendering of 拘那羅 (46) as Kuṇālā is based on the indication in Akanuma 1930/1994: 328 that the same Chinese characters can render the male Kuṇāla. My rendering of 遮 波羅 (49) is based on the equivalent given in Hirakawa 1997: 1166.

43) … of those who are able to teach and transform people, inducing them to make gifts to the monastic community of utensils, beds and seats is the nun called Suyamā;[n.56] [54] My rendering follows T 2040 at T L 12b26. The passage in the Ekottarika-āgama mentions Suyamā twice, first as foremost for her ability to teach and transform people, inducing them to make gifts to the monastic community, and then a second time as foremost among those who prepare beds and seats. As this double reference stands in contrast to the pattern observed throughout and the preparation of beds and seats also does not seem to fit the context too well, it seems safe to assume that the Ekottarika-āgama presentation has been affected by some textual error, either during transmission or else at the time of translation. Even if the point had been to present two nuns by the same name of Suyamā, one would still expect the exposition to follow the pattern observed throughout in the list.

44) … of those who have a mind that is always calm and does not generate agitated perceptions is the nun called Indajā;

45) … of those who never tire of contemplating the Dharma with understanding is the nun called Nāgī;

46) … of those who have a strong and courageous mind and are not polluted by attachment is the nun called Kuṇālā;

47) … of those who enter concentration on water, turning everything into moisture, is the nun called Vasu;

48) … of those who enter concentration on fire, fully illuminating anything, is the nun called Candī;[n.57] [55] My rendering follows T 2040 at T L 12c2.

49) … of those who contemplate impurity and analyze dependent arising is the nun called Cāpā;

50) … of those who support people, giving them what is lacking, is the nun called Sukkā;

51) Among my [ordained] disciples who attain final realization, the foremost of those nuns is the nun called Bhaddā Kuṇḍalakesā.[n.58] [56] My rendering of her quality follows T 2040 at T L 12c5; the passage in the Ekottarika-āgama appears to have suffered from a textual loss.

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Study (5)

Of the nuns mentioned in this final part, the nuns Cāpā (49) and Sukkā (50) are recorded as authors of stanzas in the Therīgāthā; the nun Sukkā is also mentioned elsewhere in the Pāli discourses.[n.59] [57] Cāpā is mentioned as the author of Thī 291–311 and Sukkā as the author of Thī 54–56. A nun by the name of Sukkā occurs in SN 10.9 at SN I 212,21 and again in SN 10.10 at SN I 213,1, with a parallel in SĀ 1327 at T II 365a25 and in SĀ2 327 at T II 483b27; cf. also Roth 1970: 111,2.

The last of the nuns in this section is the only one that is also found in the list of outstanding nuns in the Aṅguttara-nikāya. According to its presentation, Bhaddā Kuṇḍalakesā (51) was foremost among nuns who are of quick realization.[n.60] [58] AN 1.14.5 at AN I 25,25: khippābhiññānaṃ; she is the ninth nun in the list. A nun by the name Bhaddā who is outstanding for quick realization is also mentioned in T 126 at T II 833c23. Stanzas attributed to Bhaddā, the former Jain, can be found in Thī 107–111.

The illustration of the patience of Dhammadhī (42) as comparable to the earth parallels an image used in another discourse, where the chief disciple Sāriputta is wrongly accused of an offence by another monk. In reply, he proclaims that his mind is free from any resentment, being humble and patient like the earth, which does not react even when various impure substances are thrown on it, such as excrement, urine, spittle, etc.[n.61] [59] AN 9.11 at AN IV 374,25 and MĀ 24 at T I 453a18.

Concentration on water (47) and on fire (48) refer to kasiṇa meditation. The original meaning of the term kasiṇa is the meditative experience of a "totality", although in the course of time the expression came to connote the devices employed for developing a perception of totality.[n.62] [60] In fact one item in lists of kasiṇas is the consciousness-kasiṇa, cf., e.g., AN 10.26 at AN V 47,16 and its parallels MĀ 215 at T I 800b7 and SĀ 549 at T II 143a25, an experience of totality corresponding to the second of the four immaterial attainments. This is not easily related to the employment of a physical device; cf. also Anālayo 2009g and 2015a: 32. The basic principle employed in such forms of meditation is that a particular object – which could be a colour or an element like earth, water, fire, etc. – is made the sole recipient of one's attention until the mind becomes totally immersed in this object to the exclusion of anything else. Concentration developed in this way is held to yield some degree of mastery over the respective element.

Contemplation of impurity is one of the exercises given in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta and its parallels for the development of mindfulness of the body.[n.63] [61] MN 10 at MN I 57,13, MĀ 98 at T I 583b4, and EĀ 12.1 at T II 568a17. The undertaking of such contemplation requires reviewing the anatomical constitution of the body in terms of its hair, nails, teeth, etc. The purpose of this exercise is to act as an antidote to conceit and to sensual desire.

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Conclusion

Looking back on this survey of outstanding nuns, the acknowledgement that Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī (1) is considered outstanding in regard to having gone forth for a long time implies that she was foremost among several nuns that were of long standing. The same principle holds throughout the listing.

This implies that each of the nuns in the above listing should not be considered an exceptional case, where a single nun has a particular quality or ability. Rather, a nun can only be declared foremost in some respect if at the same time there were other nuns who had similar qualities or engaged in comparable conduct. Viewed from this perspective, then, the listing of outstanding nuns is a survey of qualities and modes of behaviour that were held to be to some degree common among a number of the early Buddhist nuns.

The net result of applying this perspective gives a rather impressive survey of the broad variety of areas in which nuns are shown to have engaged. These can conveniently be organized under the three headings of morality, concentration, and wisdom, a basic scaffolding of central importance in early Buddhism.[n.64] On these three dimensions of the gradual path cf. also Anālayo 2016d. In addition to these three, a fourth category that emerges from the list of outstanding nuns is activity for the benefit of others. Although from an early Buddhist perspective developing morality, concentration, and wisdom inevitably benefits others as well, the early discourses do also emphasize the need to engage actively for the benefit of others, which is in turn an integral part of one's advancing on the path to liberation.[n.65] [62] Cf. also Anālayo 2010a and 2012h, and on the early Buddhist notion of compassion 2015c and 2015d.

Under the heading of morality and strict conduct, nuns are on record for:

• upholding the disciplinary rules without infraction (8),
• never being separate from the three [main] robes (26),
• wearing the robes in an orderly manner (17),
• not being ashamed of wearing rough robes (15),
• wearing rag robes and begging in order (31),
• begging among a range of people (24),
• begging for alms without choosing between rich and poor (22),
• sitting on a grass mat, without a cloth on top (30),
• always being in secluded places, instead of among people (21),
• delighting in empty places, not in being among people (29),
• always living out in the open without caring for a cover (28),
• undertaking ascetic practices (4),
• delighting in abandoned cemeteries (32).

In relation to the development of mental tranquillity and the powers and abilities that, according to early Buddhism, are possible based on the development of concentration, nuns are shown to have been proficient in the following ways:

• entering concentration with a mind that is not scattered (6),
• being restrained during all activities (36),
• having calm senses and a unified mind (16),
• sitting alone in a single place without moving at all (23),
• sitting at the root of a tree with an unmoving mind (27),
• having a mind that is always calm (44),
• dwelling much in mettā and empathy (33),
• having compassion for unawakened living beings (34),
• cherishing patience in the heart (42),
• entering concentration on water (47),
• entering concentration on fire (48),
• excelling in supernormal powers (3),
• recollecting past lives (11),
• possessing the divine eye (5).

In regard to the gaining of insight and the development of wisdom, nuns are reported to have possessed the following qualities:

• being widely learned and kind (20),
• being wise and intelligent (2),
• analyzing and widely discoursing on the Dharma (14),
• never tiring of contemplating the Dharma (45),
• being liberated by confidence (9),
• having a courageous mind, without attachment (46),
• having attained the four analytical knowledges (10),
• delighting in the attainment of awakening (35),
• quickly accomplishing the fruits of the path (25),
• contemplating impurity and analyzing dependent arising (49),
• cultivating wishlessness (39),
• delighting in signlessness (38),
• keeping to emptiness and vacuity (37),
• attaining final realization (51).

When it comes to benefitting others and engaging in teaching activities, nuns are described as engaging in the following activities:

• supporting people, giving them what is lacking (50),
• composing stanzas in praise of the Tathāgata (19),
• discussing in various ways without hesitation (18),
• overcoming heterodox practitioners (13),
• being respected and liked by the people (12),
• teaching and transforming people (43),
• delivering people without limits (40),
• widely teaching the development of the path (7),
• widely explaining the meaning of profound teachings (41).

In sum, it seems there is hardly a praiseworthy quality or activity left in which nuns are not depicted as proficient.[n.66] [63] The list in the Ekottarika-āgama does not yet exhaust the type of qualities in which according to tradition nuns excelled; for a study of Kacaṅgalā/Kajaṅgalā and the quality in which she was reckoned foremost; cf. Collett 2016: 93–95. In this way, the list of outstanding nuns in the Ekottarika-āgama does seem to accomplish its purpose in providing a source of inspiration for nuns of later generations, who on coming to know of these different fields of excellence of nuns in the past might develop the inner confidence and dedication to emulate their predecessors.